The practice of adults telling stories to children before bedtime, whether through oral literature or read-alouds, is a long-standing tradition across all regions of the world.
While literary works are primarily enjoyed through silent or aloud reading of written texts, literature passed down orally through song and storytelling is called “la littérature orale” in French. Based on this term, Kunio Yanagita (柳田國男, 1875-1962) first coined the neologism “kōshō-bungei” (口承文芸, oral literature) in his book “A Study of the History of Oral Literature” (口承文芸史考, 1947).
Stories in oral literature are not fixed; new episodes are often inserted, and the plot can change. However, in times before written language, all myths, legends, history, laws, and scientific knowledge of certain ethnic groups had to be transmitted through words, naturally leading to the emergence of specialized professions like storytellers.
In the case of the Celts, known for their eloquence and richness of traditional literature, it is said that great effort was made to cultivate their talents. It is said that they attended academies run by so-called Druid priests, sometimes spending as long as 20 years memorizing dozens of traditional literary works before being allowed to be called “poets” (filid).
Regarding the fluid nature of folktales and legends—which are not fixed texts but living narratives passed down orally—and how their content changes each time they are told, Yanagita viewed this not as a mistake, but as a creative process.
Even if there was a single author who initially created the story, he believed that the final form emerged through generations of storytellers gradually adding and altering the content. Therefore, he viewed the creator of the story not as a specific individual, but as the entire community (herd) that passed down the tale, seeing it as a collective creation.
While folktales, a genre of oral literature, have an unknown “transmission route,” Yanagita is said to have sensed that they share a global “uniformity,” that “distant” stories are similar to each other, and that there must be “some profound cause” for this, even though it is currently inexplicable. In fact, Yanagita was the first in Japan to recognize the close relationship between Grimm’s Fairy Tales, which are oral literature, and Japanese folktales and to conduct thorough research on it.
In any case, the way folktales passed down in various parts of the world are interconnected through threads of similar stories, weaving a magnificent network of relationships, is something that is exciting and captivating, much like the cultural exchange between East and West via the Silk Road.
In fact, a characteristic of folktales, as seen in Grimm’s Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and “The Three Languages” (Die drei Sprachen), the repetition of numbers like three and seven, as well as words and actions, is a significant technique in the narrative structure unique to oral literature.
The repetitions common to both Grimm’s Fairy Tales and Japanese Folktales, as oral literature, can be mainly summarized as follows:
1. Repetition of wording:
As stories are passed from mouth to ear, repetition is a method to develop the narrative smoothly and rhythmically. When a section of the story ends and the narrative moves on to the next, the lingering image of the story is preserved, leading to the next development.
2. Repetition of words and actions:
The repetition of the same words and phrases supports the listener’s memory, updating and reinforcing their experience.
3. Repetition three times:
Repeating three times transforms the narrative from a one-sided narration into a more interactive one, making it more memorable for the listener and contributing to the story’s longevity.
Furthermore, stories involving understanding animal languages, being transformed into animals, or animals transforming into humans are common in Japanese folktales, and also appear in folktales from Siberia, Mongolia, Turkey, and China along the Silk Road. (ref., The Man Who Understood Animal Language – Siberian Folktale, The Animal Language Amulet – Turkish Folktale, People Who Understood Bird and Beast Language – Chinese Mythology)
Moreover, folktales from any region often have several versions. Also, there are cases where Eastern and Western stories share similarities in plot development and the circumstances of the protagonists, such as in the Grimm’s Cinderella and the Japanese folktale of Nukabuku Komebuku.
1. Nukafuku, a daughter who lost her mother, lives with the family of Yonefuku, her stepmother’s child. Nukafuku is treated poorly and hides her beauty.
2. A mountain hag appears before Nukafuku, who is saddened that she cannot attend the festival because she is burdened with errands, and lends her a beautiful kimono. When Nukafuku changes and goes to the festival, her true beauty is revealed, and she becomes the center of attention. Yonefuku’s family also witnesses this.
3. The village chief’s son falls in love with Nukafuku and proposes to her after the festival. The identity of the girl seen at the festival—whether it’s Nukafuku or Yonefuku—is proven by which of their dropped tabi (sandals) fits perfectly. Awafuku, who had been unfairly treated, gets married and lives happily ever after.
The story of “The Straw Millionaire (わらしべ長者),” whose original version is found in the Konjaku Monogatari (今昔物語集, c. late 11th century to mid-15th century) and the Uji Shūi Monogatari (宇治拾遺物語, 1212-1221), tells of a poor man who, having only a single straw, exchanges his possessions for more valuable items through interactions with others, eventually leading to immense wealth. It is said to symbolize the process by which stories are formed within a community.
Let’s summarize the plot of the Straw Millionaire story.
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Once upon a time, there was an honest man who worked diligently from morning till night but remained poor. He prayed to the gods.
As he left the temple, he suddenly tripped over a stone and fell, grabbing a single straw. Following the gods’ instructions, he walked west with the straw. He saw a horsefly flying by, caught it, and attached it to the end of the straw.
A child in a cart asked for the horsefly the man had. The man gave the child the straw with the horsefly on it, and the child’s mother gave him three oranges as a thank you.
As the man continued walking west, he found a girl lying on the road, thirsty and wanting water. He gave her the oranges, and she felt better. The girl gave him a silk cloth as a thank you, and the man continued walking.
As the poor man continued walking westward, he came across a samurai who, despite his haste, was in distress when his horse collapsed. Unable to continue his journey, the samurai offered to exchange his horse for silk. The man agreed, and the samurai quickly departed. The next day, the horse recovered, and the poor man continued his journey further west.
As the man was walking, the lord, who was about to leave on a journey due to an urgent matter, came out of his mansion and asked the man to give him his horse. The man agreed, and in return, the lord told the man that he would entrust the mansion and the fields behind it to him.
Even after many years passed, the lord never returned, and the man lived a wealthy life, owning a mansion and fields. However, he followed God’s word and never wasted a single straw throughout his life.
—–
According to oral composition theory, a characteristic of collective creation is that the narrator does not memorize the story word for word, but rather constructs the story improvisationally and fluidly based on the following elements.
* Formulas:
Set phrases such as “Once upon a time” or “In a certain place” that announce the beginning of the story and create rhythm, and set phrases that announce the conclusion, such as “so it was said.” or “happily ever after.”
* Themes and motifs:
The beginning, development, turning point, and conclusion, which include the major flow that forms the framework of the story, such as departure, trials, and resurrection.
Storytellers may rearrange and recreate these materials depending on the listener and the situation. Furthermore, in gatherings of villagers, interpretation and reshaping may occur in the form of conversations among multiple people, or they may take turns imaginatively stringing words together in a circle. This is a factor that allows the characteristics and individuality of the community to continue to be reflected in folktales.
In any case, oral literature is a form of cultural expression that has been passed down orally since ancient times, and there are several types, each with its own unique characteristics and features. Myths are stories that explain the origin of the world and humankind, and often feature fantastical characters and supernatural events. Folktales, legends, and fables often contain moral elements and have been used to teach children lessons and values.
In short, oral literature was once an important means of preserving culture and identity, and through the stories passed down, the history and values of local communities were respected and inherited for centuries.
The term “bedtime story” was coined by the poet and storyteller Louise Chandler Moulton (1838-1908) in her 1873 book “Bedtime Stories.” It became established as a social custom in the late 19th century as the belief grew that children needed to be calmed at the end of the day. By the early 20th century, it was widely known as a bedtime story read by adults to children before they went to sleep.
The practice of reading bedtime stories to help children fall asleep is said to have various effects, including strengthening the parent-child bond, teaching children abstract virtues such as compassion, altruism, self-control, and empathy, and sometimes prompting discussions about themes such as death and discrimination.
Furthermore, it is believed that these stories improve children’s emotional intelligence (EQ), IQ, brain development, language acquisition, vocabulary, reading comprehension, emotional understanding, social skills, imagination, creativity, self-esteem, and problem-solving abilities. They also stimulate children’s instinct for imitation, fostering a positive role model for parents and the stories they tell.
In addition, Aesop’s fables and Greek myths, traditionally passed down orally, are still recounted as bedtime stories today, playing a vital role in nurturing ethics and moral values as individuals and members of society, and passing them on to future generations.
EQ refers to the ability to control emotions, understand others, and communicate effectively; it is also a foundational skill for utilizing IQ. Focusing on bedtime stories is believed to cultivate EQ, leading to increased self-awareness—the ability to calmly consider situations and feelings in a natural and mindful way—improved self-management skills—the ability to control emotions and approach things positively, and increased empathy through experiencing the perspectives and experiences of others.
Sentiments are rooted in values and aesthetic sensibilities that are formed over a long period of time, and are a general term encompassing moral, artistic, and social feelings and states of mind nurtured through experience. The ability to comprehend and visualize words in the mind even without pictures, the ability to summarize and grasp the intention and main points of a story, the imagination to consider the feelings of the characters, and vocabulary in literary language are all fostered through bedtime stories, leading to the cultivation of sentiments.
Aesop’s fables, including stories like “The Ant and the Grasshopper,” “The Tortoise and the Hare,” “The North Wind and the Sun,” and “The Boy Who Cried Wolf,” which contain moral lessons, are perhaps better known to modern people than Homer’s epics. The author, Aesop (Aesopus), was an ancient Greek allegorical writer who lived around 619-564 BC and is said to have been a slave.
According to Herodotus, Aesop lived around 570 BC; Plutarch places him as a contemporary of Solon (630-560 BC); and Laertius states that he flourished during the 52nd Olympic Games (572 BC). While Aesop is sometimes said to have been born in Phrygia, it is more commonly believed that he was born in the Thracian town of Mesembria and eventually moved to the island of Samos.
There are various theories about which type of slave Aesop belonged to, but in ancient Greece, there were classifications such as “chatter” (slaves as movable personal property) and “slaves” as semi-slaves tied to the land, as well as several other terms used to refer to slaves, such as:
* Doumos (δμώς): Used in early texts by Homer and Hesiod, it specifically referred to captives acquired as spoils of war.
* Andrapodon (ἀνδράποδον): A term frequently used in the classical period, meaning “one with human feet,” used in contrast to quadrupedal animals.
* Doulos (δοῦλος): The most common term for slave, used as the opposite of “free people (ἐλεύθερος).” Mycenaean inscriptions record “do-e-ro” as male slaves and “do-e-ra” as female slaves.
* Oiketes (οἰκέτης): Meaning “one who lives in the house,” it referred to a servant or valet within the household.
* Theraphon (θεράπων): In Homeric times, it meant “attendant,” but in the Classical period, it came to mean “servant.”
* Acolothos (ἀκόλουθος): “Subordinate” or “accompanying person.” When referring to a young pageboy, it was also called Acolotiskos (ἀκολουθίσκος).
* Pais (παῖς): Meaning “child,” but also used as a derogatory term for young boys doing odd jobs, laborers, and adult slaves.
* Soma (σῶμα): Meaning “body,” and used in contexts such as (slave) liberation.
Furthermore, there are various accounts of his liberation from slavery, his subsequent rise to a high-ranking diplomatic position in Lydia, his receipt of a large sum of gold from King Croesus, and his subsequent dispatch across the sea to Delphi. There are also various accounts of his death in Delphi, where, disillusioned by the insatiable greed and lack of reverence for the gods of its inhabitants, he is thrown off a cliff by them.
In any case, the fact that Aesop was a topic of discussion among many poets, playwrights, and historians of his time suggests that his talent as a fable writer was recognized.
Aesop’s Fables consist of 725 stories, and their most distinctive feature is the appearance of anthropomorphic animals; each character in the stories resembles the characteristics of their respective animals. Furthermore, it presents lessons on interpersonal relationships, self-reliance, crisis management, and fundamental principles in a clear, easy-to-understand manner, offering valuable insights and life lessons that everyone can relate to.
The three greatest fairy tales in the world are Aesop’s Fables, Grimm’s Fairy Tales, and Andersen’s Fairy Tales, but their origins and purposes differ.
1. Aesop’s Fables:
* Classification: Fable (Satire)
* Era: Around the 6th century BC
* Country: Ancient Greece
* Author: Aesop
* Purpose: Moral lesson/Satire
* Tendency of endings: Karma
* Representative works: The Ant and the Grasshopper, The Tortoise and the Hare, etc.
2. Grimm’s Fairy Tales:
* Classification: Collection and retelling of folk tales (oral literature) from various parts of Germany
* Era: 19th century
* Country: Germany
* Author: Brothers Grimm
* Purpose: Folk tales Collection and preservation, education
* Tendency of endings: Rewarding good and punishing evil
* Representative works: Snow White, Hansel and Gretel, etc.
3. Andersen’s Fairy Tales:
* Classification: Original fairy tales by Andersen
* Era: 19th century
* Country: Denmark
* Author: H.C. Andersen
* Purpose: Literary and artistic expression
* Tendency of endings: Many contain tragic endings
* Representative works: The Little Mermaid, The Ugly Duckling, etc.
Here are some of the lessons contained in Aesop’s fables:
1. The Ant and the Grasshopper:
During the summer, the grasshopper sings and enjoys himself, while the ants diligently carry food in preparation for winter. When winter arrives and the grasshopper runs out of food, he asks the ants for some, but they refuse.
* Prioritizing only enjoyable things may lead to regret, so it’s important to always be prepared for the future.
2. The Tortoise and the Hare:
A fast hare and a slow tortoise race. The hare pulls ahead of the tortoise, but falls asleep midway. While the tortoise is asleep, it steadily makes its way past the hare and finishes first.
* It’s important to persevere without becoming complacent due to overconfidence in one’s talents or abilities.
3. The North Wind and the Sun:
The North Wind and the Sun began a competition to see who could get a traveler to take off his coat. The North Wind tried to blow it off with a cold wind, but it backfired. When the Sun shone its warm light on him, he took off his coat of his own accord.
* People’s hearts are moved more by a warm heart than by coercion.
4. The Golden Axe and the Silver Axe:
An honest woodcutter dropped his iron axe into a spring. The goddess Hermes appeared and asked if it was the golden axe he had dropped. When the woodcutter honestly answered that it was the iron axe, the goddess was impressed by his honesty and gave him a golden axe, a silver axe, and an iron axe. A greedy neighbor heard about this and deliberately dropped his iron axe, lying that he had dropped the golden axe, and thus lost even his own axe.
* Honesty and integrity are valuable.
5. The Lion and the Mouse:
A mouse climbs onto a sleeping lion and wakes it up. The angry lion catches the mouse, but releases it when it begs for its life. Later, the lion gets caught in a hunter’s net, but the mouse reappears, chews through the net, and rescues the lion.
* Kindness is never wasted, and it’s important to show respect to everyone, regardless of their status or power.
6. The Boy Who Cried Wolf:
A shepherd boy, bored, lies about a wolf coming, enjoying the villagers’ panic and confusion, repeating the lie multiple times. One day, a wolf actually appears, and the boy desperately begs the villagers for help, but they ignore him, and all his sheep are eaten.
* Continuing to lie will make it impossible for anyone to believe you when you truly need it. Building trust takes time, but losing it is instantaneous.
7. Sour Grapes:
A hungry fox spots delicious-looking grapes hanging high up, but cannot reach them even by leaping. Giving up, the fox concludes that the grapes are unripe and must be sour, and leaves.
* The psychology of dismissing something unattainable as worthless involves cognitive dissonance, where one tries to protect their pride by devaluing the object rather than acknowledging their own inadequacy.
There are too many well-known stories to mention, so let’s leave it at that.
The origins of Japanese fables can be traced back to Zhuangzi (c. 369 BC – c. 286 BC), one of the founders of Taoism and Laozi-Zhuang thought, who wrote numerous short fables that taught morality through animals and fictional characters in ancient China. It is believed that these fables came to be collectively called “fables” in Japan during the process of their transmission, and that the term became established in the Japanese language during the Heian period (8th-12th centuries). Animal tales found in works such as the Konjaku Monogatari (12th century) and the Uji Shūi Monogatari (13th century) show the influence of ancient Chinese fable literature.
The character “gū (寓)” in the word “gūwa” (寓話, fable) means temporary dwelling, and it contains the metaphor of inhabiting a form that is not one’s original form. This aligns with the structure of animals playing human roles, which is why this character was adopted in Japan.
Aesop’s Fables are said to have been formed as a collection of fables over many years and in many stages. When movable type printing became widespread in Europe in the 15th century, Aesop’s Fables began to be published, and they were brought to Japan through Jesuit missionaries. Furthermore, Esopo No Fabvlas (1593), which contains 45 stories and was printed at the Collegio (Jesuit school) in Amakusa, was the first Western book to be translated into Japanese.
In the early Edo period, movable type editions were published during the Keichō (慶長), Genna (元和), and Kan’ei (寛永) eras, and then, during the Manji (万治) era, the illustrated woodblock-printed edition known as “Isoho Monogatari” (伊曾保物語, 1659) was published. Despite Christianity being strictly forbidden at the time, Aesop’s fables, being didactic stories unrelated to religious doctrine, were adopted as teaching materials in terakoya (寺子屋, private schools) and became widely read, later influencing kana-zōshi (仮名草子), another type of didactic literature.
Japanese folktales feature numerous stories in which animals risk revealing their true identities by transforming into humans or behaving like humans in animal form, for reasons such as repaying a favor, deceiving people, playing pranks, or falling in love. Furthermore, the animals in Japanese folktales are depicted as equals to humans, capable of engaging in skillful conversations, possessing beautiful appearances, and being approachable and friendly.
This might be because, in Japan, sentient beings are believed to wander through the six realms of existence (六道): hell (地獄), gaki ghosts (餓鬼), animals (畜生), asuras (阿修羅), humans (人間), and heaven (天). This suggests that the implicit understanding that living beings at all stages of life have the potential to interact with humans in this world was accepted without any sense of incongruity.
On the other hand, Aesop’s fables reflect the characteristics of each animal species and personify them within the narrative. It’s like a narrative version of the Choju-jinbutsu-giga (鳥獣人仏戯画, 12th-13th century), a picture scroll of ink paintings on paper preserved at Kozan-ji Temple (高山寺) in Kyoto, and the anecdotal advice on how to live life, which came from overseas, may have seemed novel to the people of that time.
In fact, children who were not interested in moral education books that simply listed difficult lessons, and ordinary people who did not have the opportunity to acquire academic knowledge, could easily understand the fairy tales of Isoho Monogatari (Aesop’s Fables). They were not life lessons imposed by rulers for their own benefit, but rather universal virtues common to all people, teaching them how to live and how to survive, and were received by ordinary people as stories that imparted wisdom for living.
In any case, fables, which condense the truths of life, impermanence, freedom, love, and solitude into short stories, have been passed down through generations around the world, such as the fables of Zhuangzi from ancient China, which are full of wisdom for accepting impermanence and living naturally, such as dreams and reality, life and death, freedom and constraint; the Panchatantra, the oldest collection of fables from India, which tells of human folly and greed or practical wisdom for living a wise life through the stories of animals; La Fontaine’s fables, which are a more mature version of Aesop’s fables that sharply depict the dark side of life such as vanity, greed, jealousy, and folly with humor and irony; and the Jataka tales, which are stories of the Buddha’s past lives, which entrust good and bad deeds and cause and effect to simple stories and are full of wisdom, compassion, and patience for calming the mind and living peacefully.
The name Zhuangzi (荘子), referring to a Taoist philosopher who lived during the mid-Warring States period of ancient China (around the 4th century BC), can refer to either the person or his writings. His surname was Zhuang, his given name Zhou, and he was from the state of Chu (楚, present-day Henan Province), where he is said to have been an official in the lacquer garden.
The work “Zhuangzi” consists of three parts and expresses its philosophy through parables and anecdotes.
* Inner Chapters: Believed to have been written by Zhuangzi himself, containing the core teachings.
* Outer Chapters: Written by Zhuangzi’s disciples and successors.
* Miscellaneous Chapters: Written by other authors.
Zhuangzi’s philosophy influenced not only Taoism and Zen Buddhism, but also later philosophers such as Heidegger (1889-1976). His concepts of harmony with nature and non-action/naturalness, in particular, resonate with many people today as spiritual guidelines, providing opportunities to consider environmental protection and mental health.
Lao Tzu (老子), the author of the Tao Te Ching (道徳経), considered the Tao (道) to be the source of all things and argued that humans should live naturally in accordance with the Tao, and also emphasized the concept of nothingness.
On the other hand, Zhuangzi (荘子) argued that values such as good and evil are relative, that there is no difference between all things, and that existence and non-existence are all equal (equivalent) (ref., On the Equality of Things, 斉物論). Zhuangzi considered the Tao to be the source of all things, and developed Lao Tzu’s philosophy, arguing that in order to be free from the suffering and constraints of reality, one should live in accordance with the Tao, and expounded on a way of life in harmony with nature and a state of mind free from the bondage of this world.
Just as a river changes its course naturally when it encounters an obstacle rather than trying to overcome it, Laozi and Zhuangzi’s philosophy emphasizes that when faced with obstacles and difficulties in life, one should not resist but surrender to the flow, follow the Tao as the fundamental principle of the universe, and live in harmony with the rhythm of nature. It also considers it essential to avoid artificial intervention and coercion brought about by technological advancements, maintaining harmony with all things and living a stress-free, symbiotic life.
Furthermore, Zhuangzi advocated the “usefulness of the useless,” arguing that even seemingly useless things can have meaning, such as a tree whose shade can be used for rest, and that usefulness lies precisely in what appears useless. This approach—re-examining what is truly essential in life, rather than being solely bound by material value, and finding value in seemingly useless things—offers profoundly meaningful insights to modern people seeking inner richness in our consumer society.
While Laozi’s Tao Te Ching is a collection of extremely concise aphorisms, Zhuangzi, rather than simply stating how one should think logically, conveys didactic elements through fables and fantastical episodes featuring rich narratives and symbolic characters. The opening chapter of the Inner Chapters, “Enjoyment in Untroubled Ease (逍遥遊),” which recounts the transformations of kūn (鯤) and péng (鵬), depicts utterly unconventional scenes and unfolds with absurd wordplay, demonstrating the unique character that permeates the entire work.
To illustrate just how fantastical it is, let’s translate “shōyōyū” (逍遙遊). Shōyōyū means to wander freely and unconstrained by anything. Kūn (鯤) means fish eggs, so by using the name of something tiny for a gigantic fish, the story immediately overturns preconceived notions and common sense at the very beginning.
—
In the Northern Sea (the dark sea at the northernmost edge), there lives a fish called Kūn (鯤). Its size is unknown, perhaps thousands of miles.
Eventually, the Kūn transforms into a bird called Péng (鵬). Its back is also unknown, perhaps thousands of miles long. When it takes flight with great force, its wings resemble clouds covering the entire sky. When the sea becomes rough, this bird tries to fly to the Southern Sea (南冥) on the great winds. The Southern Sea is the Heavenly Lake (天池, the lake created by the Creator).
—
In fact, it is well known that intellectuals known as the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove (竹林七賢), such as Ruan Ji (阮籍) and Ji Kang (嵆康), who were active during the Wei-Jin period (魏晋時代), often referenced Zhuangzi’s eccentric anecdotes during banquets and philosophical discussions, satirizing the emptiness of real society, praising Zhuangzi’s detached stance and relative thinking, and trying to maintain a distance from the secular world.
In the “Da Sheng (達生篇)” chapter of Zhuangzi’s Outer Chapters (外篇), the image of living in harmony with nature is highlighted. People in seemingly impoverished states such as illness, disability, or age-related decline are portrayed vividly, suggesting that misfortune and inconvenience in the eyes of the world may actually be opportunities to open up different possibilities for the individual. This positive reinterpretation of worldly, worthless evaluations, and rather than logical persuasion, it sparks sudden images in the mind, stimulating the imagination and leading to the delightful aspect of fables—the idea that there is also this way of looking at things.
Zhuangzi’s perspective, which questions common sense and advocates absolute freedom, was read by samurai and literary figures in Japan from the medieval to the early modern period through translations, and also attracted the attention of Confucian scholars and national scholars during the Edo period. In the intellectual world since the 20th century, Zhuangzi has often been cited when discussing creative thinking, and the power of his fables continues to be re-evaluated. when discussing creative thinking, and the power of his fables continues to be re-evaluated.
The “Butterfly Dream (胡蝶の夢)” in Zhuangzi’s “Discourse on the Equality of Things (斉物論)” is based on Zhuangzi’s own experience.
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Once, I, Zhuang Zhou, dreamt that I became a butterfly. I fluttered joyfully, truly a butterfly. I enjoyed myself freely and indulged in my own pleasure, completely forgetting that I was Zhuang Zhou.
Suddenly, I awoke with a start, and there I was, Zhuang Zhou, looking around in surprise.
Did Zhuang Zhou dream of becoming a butterfly, or did the butterfly dream of becoming Zhuang Zhou?
There is always a distinction between Zhuang Zhou and the butterfly. This is called the transformation of all things.
—
Based on this intriguing story of not knowing whether I dreamt of becoming a butterfly or the butterfly dreamt of becoming me, Zhuang Zhou expounds on the principle of the equality of all things: that all things transform into other things, repeating this process eternally, and that the visual distinctions in phenomenal terms are merely relative distinctions arising from this transformation; in reality, they are essentially the same.
Whether it is a human or a butterfly, the distinction is merely relative in terms of phenomenal appearance, that is, in terms of form; there is no absolute, essential distinction. The state of absolute freedom is a world that transcends relative distinctions, and “The Butterfly Dream” is an allegory that expresses the metaphysical idea of ”equality of all things” in an extremely concise, symbolic, and literary way.
Incidentally, in “You Meng Ying (幽夢影),” written in the early Qing Dynasty, the author Zhang Chao (張潮) states the following about the butterfly dream:
—
For Zhuang Zhou to dream of becoming a butterfly is a blessing for Zhuang Zhou.
For a butterfly to dream of becoming Zhuang Zhou is a curse for the butterfly.
—
Some readers may recall the opening phrase from Natsume Soseki’s “Kusamakura,” which I mentioned in my previous blog post: for a butterfly, suddenly becoming human, bound by worldly constraints, and unable to live freely might indeed be somewhat annoying. (ref., Artistic Visualization Between Existence and Structure)
However, in “The Butterfly Dream (胡蝶の夢),” Zhuangzi merely suggests that dreams and reality might be essentially the same, but he is not seeking an answer. Translating this to modern society, it embodies the universal theme of the interrelationship between oneself and the surrounding world, and can be seen as an allegory standing at the same intersection as philosophy, science, and literature that explore virtual reality and consciousness. (Ref., my previous blog post, Awakening From Absurdity And Collective Illusion To Pursue Individuality)
In fact, in ancient China, dreams were not merely personal experiences, but were considered windows connecting heaven and earth, humanity and the gods. Confucius’s (孔子) “Analects (論語)” describes meeting one’s father or ancestors in a dream, suggesting that dreams were a place where ancestors and destiny communicated, and were also used as a means of divination and premonition.
In Yin-Yang philosophy (陰陽思想), dreams are considered a symbol of the moment when Yin and Yang intersect. Just as the Yang that flourishes during the day sinks into the Yin of night, dreams belong to the realm of Yin, existing in a different dimension yet deeply connected to reality. Like destiny and the cycle of Yin and Yang, dreams are not mere illusions but a part of life, existing in a realm that transcends reality, and are seen as a key to understanding one’s relationship with the universe.
In the philosophy of Buddha, dreams are seen as impermanent, just like reality. In the process of attaining enlightenment, where all existence is born, changes, and then disappears, dreams are also considered merely fleeting phenomena and symbolize transience.
In Zen Buddhism, dreams are seen as a mirror reflecting truth. The symbols and events that appear in dreams are seen as reflections of attachments and delusions within the mind, and letting go of these can bring one closer to enlightenment. This perspective, like the “butterfly dream,” illustrates the ambiguity of the boundary between dreams and reality.
The 17th-century philosopher René Descartes, questioning the sensory-based perception of reality and noting the difficulty in distinguishing events in dreams from reality, developed methodological skepticism in his *Discourse on Method*. Similar to the “butterfly dream,” Descartes pointed out the difficulty of distinguishing between dreams and reality.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) viewed dreams as a symbolic manifestation of repressed desires and emotions, seeing flying in dreams as a yearning for freedom and getting lost as anxiety, thus using dreams as a key to understanding the depths of the mind. This sets him apart from Zhuangzi, who viewed dreams as a mystery floating between reality and dreams.
In any case, in the East, dreams are seen as a means of exploring a sense of oneness with the entire universe, even though the boundary between reality and dreams is ambiguous, while in the West, dreams are considered to exist within the individual or outside of reality, and are seen as a key to exploring the individual’s unconscious desires and psychological state.
In traditional Chinese painting, particularly during the Song dynasty, the philosophical depth of the “Butterfly Dream” was conveyed through its visual representation. Many works depict butterflies fluttering in a dream and the surrounding nature with delicate brushstrokes, capturing the flapping of the butterflies’ wings and the flow of the wind. With a refined and serene sensibility, these works not only symbolize the space between reality and dreams but also express the harmony between nature and humanity.
As if influenced by the “Butterfly Dream,” many Edo-period ukiyo-e artists, such as Kitagawa Utamaro, depicted butterflies as ornate decorations, creating works symbolizing dreams and fantasies. Even in modern times, the surrealist painter Salvador Dalí, known for his works exploring the ambiguity between dreams and reality, can be said to have opened up new possibilities in contemporary art.
In any case, fables are expressed in various forms, including not only paintings but also literature, films, and other visual arts, because they offer multi-layered experiences by integrating symbolic and metaphorical elements and embedding a consistent message within the narrative, and they stimulate reflection on essence of humanity, moral values, forms of love, ethics, philosophical, beliefs, meaning of happiness, and value of time. As a writer myself, forming and developing my own ideas based on allegorical thinking in order to visualize concepts is an essential process in my artistic creativity.
Furthermore, when we grow older and reach old age, fables and fairy tales can take on a fresh light and resonate deeply in our hearts, differing from the meanings we heard in our childhood.
* Arabian Nights is a collection of cautionary tales about human psychology, the nuances of human relationships, judgment, prudence, wisdom, resourcefulness, and human weakness and strength, through stories of magic and adventure involving desire, betrayal, danger, caution, wisdom, and fate.
* George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” is an allegory that emphasizes moral lessons, using farm animals as symbols of various social classes and politicians, exploring themes such as the cycle of power, corruption, and oppression, and possessing timeless universality.
* George Orwell’s “1884,” as a political fable criticizing and exposing problems in social structures and government, depicts a dystopian society dominated by totalitarian rule, embodying the struggle for individual freedom and truth against oppressive government forces.
* Arthur Miller’s play “The Crucible” is a historical allegory that reinterprets real events and people from a fictional perspective, offering a new viewpoint on past events. It depicts the Salem witch trials as a story of the McCarthy era and the fear of communism in America, and through the hysteria surrounding the witch hunts, it criticizes the fanaticism and danger of scapegoating that were rampant in American politics at the time.
* Franz Kafka’s collection of fables depicts the many heartbreaking aspects of life, such as things that cannot be explained, efforts that go unrewarded, and doing the right thing that goes unappreciated, showing how we are forced to live amidst the absurdity of organizational logic, the expectations of others, and the rules of society.
* C.S. Lewis’s “The Chronicles of Narnia” is a spiritual allegory that explores themes such as faith, spirituality, morality, and the truth of God, presenting moral lessons and questions about faith through doctrinal motifs that symbolize the Creator, sacrifice, and redemption.
* Michael Ende’s “Momo” is a story that explores what time is, what it means to live a fulfilling life, the value of time, the value of listening, and the essence of life, through the lens of modern society’s time pressures, an overemphasis on efficiency, and the weakening of human relationships. In a world where time thieves known as the Grey Men steal away hearts and lives, Momo, guided by the tortoise Cassiopeia and the timekeeper Meister Hora, embarks on an adventure to reclaim the time that has been stolen from her.
* In Ryunosuke Akutagawa’s (芥川龍之介) “The Spider’s Thread (蜘蛛の糸),” he highlights the boundary between good and evil, the difficulty of selfishness and salvation; in “Kappa (河童),” he reflects the abnormality of human society and the precariousness of common sense; and in “Toshishun (杜子春),” he reminds us of what is truly important in life, beyond the pursuit of wealth and fame.
* Kenji Miyazawa’s (宮沢賢治) “Night on the Galactic Railroad (銀河鉄道の夜)” is a fantastical and mysterious story of the souls of the dead, exploring the ultimate questions of life such as loneliness, friendship, connection, death, salvation, the meaning of life, the pain of letting go of loved ones, the willingness to sacrifice oneself to save others, and the true meaning of happiness.
* Maurice Maeterlinck’s “The Blue Bird” explores universal themes such as where happiness lies and what determines the value of life through the story of poor siblings Tyltyl and Mytyl who embark on a journey to find the blue bird of happiness through the power of magic, and gives us the realization that happiness is not far away but close at hand in our everyday lives.
* Zaccharius Topelius’s fairy tales tell universal themes that resonate with life’s experiences, such as the power of goodwill, life’s trials, the light of hope, and compassion, through warmth and fantasy, and are imbued with wisdom for life that deeply touches the heart at the end of one’s life.
In any case, allegories clearly weave morality, lessons, and themes into their narratives. Through characters (animals) and events, ethical, moral, or philosophical concepts are developed and expressed on two levels—literally (superficial) and symbolically (deeply)—encouraging readers, viewers, and audiences to discover the deeper meanings hidden within.
Therefore, the creation of an allegory requires a fusion of imagination and intention.
* When setting the concepts, themes, and ideas to be explored, it is essential to possess broad knowledge and to determine the appropriate approach to develop them—whether through moral ideals, political, moral, or social ethics.
* It is essential to determine what specific ideals to symbolize in the characters, considering their contribution to the underlying message of the story.
* It is essential to determine how to appropriately weave a wide range of themes into the story, reflecting its innovative development and symbolic nature.
* It is essential to determine what conflicts or challenges related to the message should be constructed as subplots to increase complexity, offer new perspectives on the main theme, and enhance the overall value of the story.
Since ancient times, oral literature and fables have captivated people, stimulated their thoughts, and provided spiritual support. Through symbolic characters, animals, actions, and events, they have conveyed moral lessons, the meaning of experiences, virtues, artistic aesthetics, and social insights hidden beneath the surface of the stories. They play a role in passing on traditions, customs, culture, and social norms to future generations, and can be said to have contributed to the creation of a better society.
Even today, deeply refined fables, expressed through literature, film, poetry, or the individual creativity of their authors, resonate as a quiet light illuminating the essence of life, offering fresh and moving meaning to people of all generations at any given time, comforting those who feel anxious, lonely, or lost, and will lead a more spiritually richer and happier life.
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