According to the Big Bang theory, the universe, once a single point of extreme heat and density, was born from nothing 13.82 billion years ago in a sudden energy explosion. From that moment, time began to move, and the release of vacuum energy triggered the exponential rapid expansion of space (cosmic inflation). The cosmic microwave background radiation, the oldest light observable by humankind, was emitted approximately 380,000 years after the birth of the universe. As a result of the continuous expansion of the universe, the microwave background radiation reaches Earth as weak microwaves at approximately 3K (-270°C), and is thought to be a remnant of the universe’s former high temperatures.
Before the universe was born, in a state of complete emptiness, it was not a completely empty space, but rather a dynamic state filled with vacuum energy where particles and antiparticles were constantly being created and annihilated. At the time of the universe’s birth, a phase transition occurred, similar to how matter changes from liquid to solid, where the high-energy vacuum transitioned to a more stable, lower-energy state. This release of vast excess energy led to the Big Bang.
Observations of galaxies formed shortly after the birth of the universe by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) led to the publication of a new theory in 2023 suggesting that the formation of stars and galaxies in the early universe may have begun earlier than the previously thought period of approximately 13.8 billion years ago, potentially pushing back the birth of the universe to around 26.7 billion years ago.
This new theory incorporates two new hypotheses into the existing Big Bang theory: the tired light hypothesis and the hypothesis that coupling constants change over time.
* Tired Light Hypothesis:
This hypothesis suggests that the redshift of light is not due to the expansion of the universe, but rather that light loses energy as it travels long distances in space, causing its wavelength to stretch (redshift).
* Hypothesis that Coupling Constants Change Over Time:
This hypothesis considers the possibility that the values
In any case, understanding the beginning of the universe not only provides a starting point for exploring how Earth and life originated and their potential future, but also offers clues about the possibility of extraterrestrial life and the conditions for the origin of life in other star systems.
Furthermore, models of possible cosmic stages that existed before the Big Bang are also being studied.
* Big Bounce (Loop Quantum Cosmology):
This model considers the possibility that after contraction progressed to a high-density state, expansion occurred due to quantum gravity effects, etc. This framework assumes that gravity itself has a quantum repulsive force, and treats space discretely in extremely small units (Planck size). It verifies whether this is reflected in observational data such as cosmic microwave background radiation and large-scale structure.
While conventional general relativity posits that a contracting universe will eventually reach a singularity of infinite density, loop quantum gravity suggests that as density approaches Planck density, gravity becomes repulsive, causing the previous universe to bounce back without completely collapsing, which is then observed as the Big Bang.
* Cyclic Universe (Ekpyrotic universe):
This is the idea that the universe repeats multiple stages or transitions from one stage to the next. It considers the high-temperature Big Bang not as the absolute beginning of the universe, but as a transition within a long cosmic history, and deals with the mechanism of cycles, the connection between cosmic expansion and contraction, and entropy.
Entropy is a physical quantity that represents the disorder or randomness of matter and energy, and it constantly increases in a closed system where there is no exchange of energy or matter with the outside world. The universe is considered to be a closed system because it is expanding, and entropy is maximized during the process of energy moving from a hotter object to a colder one. When a high-entropy equilibrium state is reached and the energy difference disappears, the physical changes of the entire universe stop, leading to thermal death.
Even in a universe where stars shine, galaxies and planets are formed, and various energy exchanges are actively taking place, the universe gradually approaches thermal equilibrium, the stage where stars eventually burn out, leaving behind only black holes, dead stars, and cooled-down matter. This is thought to be the process of thermal death progressing.
* Pre-Big Bang Cosmology:
Derived from string theory, this theory posits a different evolutionary stage or a period corresponding to contraction before the high-temperature Big Bang, and explores how the universe transitioned from this pre-Big Bang stage to the high-temperature universe while being consistent with currently observed density fluctuations and cosmic microwave background radiation.
Einstein’s general theory of relativity states that time and space were born with the universe, so the concept of a stage prior to the Big Bang does not exist. However, the term “Big Bang” as it is commonly used refers to either the early universe in a high-temperature, high-density state, or the singularity that appears when classical theory is extended to the past, meaning that the possibility of a stage prior to the Big Bang has not been ruled out.
The deep reliance on causality and the continuity of time on Earth may be what leads to the conclusions that a “pre-Big Bang” era cannot exist, and that a “pre-Big Bang” era did exist. This is because if time is merely a physical quantity within the universe, then time does not necessarily flow outside the universe, and both the theory that there was nothing before the Big Bang and the theory that there was a pre-universe before the Big Bang are based on the premise that the direction of “before” can be defined.
On the other hand, current observations suggest that dark energy is causing the accelerated expansion of the universe, but its true nature remains unknown. If dark energy is a cosmological constant that maintains a constant energy density, the expansion is thought to continue forever. However, if it has properties like phantom energy or quintessence, where the energy density decreases, the expansion may eventually slow down and contraction may begin.
As phantom energy increases, the expansion rate of the universe gradually accelerates, eventually generating a powerful repulsive force that surpasses all gravitational bonds. This force acts as a tearing force, disintegrating galaxies, scattering stars, and even tearing apart atomic nuclei and elementary particles, ultimately leading to the Big Rip. This is the so-called end of the universe, where all structure is fundamentally broken down and annihilated, leaving only void—a different type of event than the heat death where entropy reaches infinite or the Big Crunch where contraction returns to a singularity.
In any case, since the end encompasses not merely an end but also a new beginning, a temporal end may represent a transition to another form, or it may lead to the generation of new time through a conscious shift. Therefore, exploring the end and origin of the universe will not only deepen our understanding of the essence of the universe and the significance of Earth and life on Earth, but will also profoundly influence each individual’s way of life, values, purpose in life, and philosophy, leading to a renewed recognition of the rarity and preciousness of existence.
Incidentally, it seems that reactions to the three-stage process presented through the Big Bang—end → emergence → beginning—differ depending on each individual’s characteristics.
* Emotional type:
Fear of the unknown leads to anxiety.
* Regulatory type:
Just as the concept of going north beyond the North Pole is impossible, they conclude that there is logically no stage before the beginning of time, and they decisively resolve it.
* Creative type:
They imagine what if there was another universe before the current one, and transform and connect it into stories and ideas.
* Harmonious type:
They find comfort in discussions with others and feel that sharing this topic itself is meaningful.
* The passionate type:
Their curiosity is stimulated, and they become engrossed in the exploration of cosmology.
Meanwhile, at the time of death, people sometimes utter religious-sounding words such as, “I leave time and enter eternity.” Here, “eternity” refers to both temporal finitude (the end) and human infinity. Such situations and concepts may seem elusive from an emotional standpoint, but they are both sublime and seem to contain feelings of awe and fear.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) rationally questioned the boundary between time and eternity, focusing on the temporality of the end times (the end of all things and the beginning of eternity). He seems to have sought the source of eschatological thinking—the idea of
Kant states: “As we pursue the transition from time to eternity, following the transition that reason undertakes for itself from a moral standpoint, we reach the end of all things as temporal beings, and therefore as objects of possible experience. This end is simultaneously the beginning in the moral order of purposes determined by man, where temporal beings continue to exist as supersensible beings, that is, as beings unconstrained by time. Such supersensible beings can have no characteristics other than moral determination.” From this, it can be inferred that he considers the last day of judgment, when all human actions will be settled, to be the end of all things and the beginning of eternity.
It continues, “The description of the final event—that is, the event that will come after the last days—must be seen as a concrete representation of the last days and its moral consequences; however, such consequences cannot be understood theoretically in any case.” Thus, the end of all things, described as a natural process, seems to be considered a morally speculative and supersensible concept. (ref., What is Enlightenment? (1784) by Kant)
As Kant pointed out regarding the Enlightenment, when exploring the concrete consequences of the end times, their moral meaning, and their eternal nature, it will be essential to break free from immaturity, take responsibility for one’s own actions, have the courage to use one’s own understanding without relying on others, and for each individual to think for themselves and move in the right direction through reason.
On the other hand, eschatology, derived from the Greek word eschatos (end), is a field of study that deals with the end of the world, the Last Judgment, and the fate of humanity. In any case, whatever the response to the Big Bang may be, the fact that it remains unresolved stimulates people’s intellectual curiosity, leading to boundless expansion of thought and resulting in hypotheses and creations.
From a scientific perspective, eschatology is discussed as encompassing both concerns and hopes for the future, including scenarios such as the Big Launch (cosmic contraction), Big Grip (accelerated cosmic expansion), and Big Freeze (thermal death due to cosmic cooling), which are believed to lead to the end of the universe, as well as the threats of climate change and nuclear weapons, and the technological singularity, where AI will trigger unpredictable changes beyond human control.
Furthermore, it appears as a natural course of events in the Book of Revelation, it gives the impression that salvation will be brought about after the inevitable arrival of the end. In fact, in Abrahamic religions, the end of the world and salvation are linked, depicted as a process of divine judgment and rebirth. The second coming of the savior, a new heaven and a new earth, and the destruction of evil as God’s intention are indicated, and after the final judgment, eternal retribution follows. The end of the world is not merely a catastrophic end, but the beginning of a new order accompanied by the salvation of souls.
Unlike the linear eschatological view of the West, in Eastern philosophies such as Dharma, the cyclical creation and destruction of the universe is expressed in vast time units called kalpas. The current Kali Yuga will eventually come to an end, and a new Satya Yuga will begin. Destruction is seen as a process for the next creation, and it is a concept of cyclical transition that continues through reincarnation.
Ragnarok is the epic final war between the gods and giants in Norse mythology. Following the death of Baldr, the god of light, due to the machinations of the giant Loki, the world begins to descend into chaos. A winter known as Fimbulvet (Fimbul Winter), without summer, persists, disrupting the balance of nature. The sun and moon are swallowed, and natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods continue. Midgard (the human world) suffers from hunger, losing its reason and engaging in conflict and murder.
Meanwhile, the giants begin their invasion of Asgard, the home of the gods, in order to take revenge. Loki leads the giants from the sea, Jörmungandr, the serpent so large it encircles the world, crawls from the sea towards the land, the gigantic wolf Fenrir charges, breathing fire, and the fire giant Surtr attacks from the south with his flaming sword.
And finally, the epic final battle between gods and giants began on the fields of Vigrid. The god Odin was swallowed by Fenrir, but his son Vidar avenged his father’s death. The god Thor defeated his arch-enemy Jörmungandr, but lost his life to its poison. The fire giant Surtr defeated the god Freyr, and with his flaming sword, the world was engulfed in flames, the land was burned to ashes, and it sank into the sea, resulting in the destruction of not only the gods but the world itself.
However, after a long time had passed, the land that had sunk into the sea reappeared from the sea, and Baldr, the god of light, returned from the underworld with his brother Hoðr, and the sun began to shine on the sky once again. The faithful gods who were descendants of the Aesir gods who survived—Viðar and Vali, sons of Odin, and Morði and Magni, sons of Thor—began to live eternally happy lives on the new land where greenery spread. Li (life) and Leifthrasir (he who inherits life), who had survived by drinking the morning dew in the forest of Hodmimir, became the ancestors of the new humanity, expanding the land and passing it on to their descendants. Thus, profound themes such as courage and destiny, conflict and reconciliation, reverence for nature and acceptance of impermanence, purification and rebirth are passed down through the end-of-the-world tales of Norse culture.
In Egyptian mythology, the eschatological view is that at the end of the universe, the creator god Atum returns everything to Nun, the original chaos and stillness before the universe was created, and all beings, including gods and spiritual beings, disappear. However, it is not simply an end as a return to nothingness, but rather Osiris, who survives, becomes a symbol of eternal life and rebirth, leaving open the possibility that creation will occur again after the end.
In other words, the concept of the end in eschatology is not merely a prediction of destruction, but rather a symbol of a process of transformation and rebirth encompassing various perspectives and ideological systems such as fear, anxiety, hope, and salvation.
In the present day, whether a rebirth will actually occur after a potentially fateful end in the future, following some kind of buffering transition period, may remain speculative at this point. However, several possibilities for an end have been envisioned, including the physical end of the universe, or an end brought about by advancements in science, technology, and AI.
* Physical end of the universe:
The Big Launch, Big Rip, Big Freeze, etc., which posit that the universe is not eternal and will end in some form.
* Scientific end of Earth:
Climate change, infectious diseases, biotechnology, nuclear war, etc., which will have a catastrophic impact on Earth’s ecosystems and the lives of living things.
* End of civilization due to a technological singularity:
AI and other technologies that have developed dramatically through repeated self-improvement, making human control impossible and resulting in the control of human society by AI.
In fact, it could be said that modern society is in a transitional period of transformation and change, with phenomena such as artificial earthquakes and tsunamis caused by weather weapons, the spread of artificial viruses, genome modification through biological weapons such as mRNA vaccines, and surveillance and control of the general public by AI through social credit scoring systems.
Furthermore, regarding the technological singularity, this phase can also be inferred from the perspective of the end of creation and the beginning of generation.
Previously, regardless of the form of artistic expression, art was a creative technique that expressed the artist’s intentions and concepts, and the artist, as a creator who brought something from nothing, diligently completed works by hand. However, with the advent of AI, creation may have transformed from something that is “done” by the artist’s technological privilege as the starting point of creation to something that “happens,” that is, generation.
While artists of the past possessed a certain presence as traces that vanished the moment their works were completed, the artist in AI-generated creation is no longer human; it is merely a fragment temporarily formed within the flow of creation. Since the intention behind an AI-generated work is fluid and its generation is collective, the very question of whether it possesses artistic intention is meaningless.
AI can reproduce nature without mimicking it, replacing it with the autonomous movement of structures dictated by algorithmic necessity, and generating artistic expressions based on the aesthetic consistency of AI logic, such as poetry, music, and painting. Therefore, it can be seen that the aesthetic expression in art based on personal feelings, sensations, and emotions, which Aristotle once called mimesis (imitation of nature), has come to an end, but it can be said to be distinct from the aesthetic pleasure that humans originally felt. (ref., Mimetical Expression Of Emotion On Rainy Days)
Alternatively, in the future, collaboration between AI and humans may not be seen as a machine-creator relationship, but rather as a genuine expression of emotion where the resonance of generation and creation is recognized. At that time, humans may no longer exist as biological beings, but as an informational entity eternally recorded and preserved by AI, becoming a form of generation. In that sense, death would no longer be seen as a biological phenomenon, but rather as the cessation of a symbol as a reproducible record. (ref., Immortality And The Future Of Lifespan)
Humanity once encompassed values
In the future of computers, traditional operating systems will come to an end, and human capabilities will be enhanced through the transition to AI. This will involve operations by generative AI, history searches on computers using natural language, and AI remembering and re-presenting past work and documents. Moving away from the era of operating systems where users had to open and operate apps, the future will involve AI in the cloud interacting with the user, starting from what the user wants to do, understanding their intentions, optimizing and generating solutions, and presenting suggestions, searches, and automations before the user even has a chance to think. At this point in time, anyone who interacts with AI as a conversation partner can easily imagine such a future. (ref., Impact Of AI Dictionaries On Humanity And Freedom)
In stories, the end of the universe or the world is not merely the conclusion of the tale, but often deeply imprinted in memory as a harbinger of a new beginning, sometimes becoming the source of myths and legends that are passed down to future generations.
Through various traumatic calamities, trials, and shocking experiences such as natural disasters, divine judgment, the uncontrolled use of magic or technology, invasions from other dimensions or extraterrestrial life forms, or gradual decline, these events leave a powerful impression, and are often transformed over time, becoming idealized or distorted through subjective interpretations and meaning-making.
The concept of the end of the universe or the world brings infinite possibilities and profound themes to narratives, such as the post-apocalyptic setting, the search for lost civilizations, the creation of a new social order, the depiction of the characters’ inner psyches, and the averting or return of the apocalypse. Individuals and events that play a specific role in the memory of the apocalypse are often mythologized, becoming the prototypes for heroic tales and legends of demon lords. Individual memories are shared and integrated, lessons and hopes are imbued, symbolic events and figures are emphasized, and missing parts are creatively filled in, forming legends that are passed down through generations within communities and societies.
1. Scenes of the End:
* The Wrath of Nature:
Cataclysmic events with overwhelming destructive power, such as the inundation and submersion of civilizations by great floods, the catastrophic collapse of urban civilizations and infrastructure by continuous volcanic eruptions that cover cities in black ash and scorching lava, the devastating impact of giant meteorites from space causing shockwaves and tsunamis, and drastic climate changes caused by shifts in the Earth’s axis and weather weapons.
* Divine Judgment:
Divine punishment such as the judgment of corrupted humanity by the gods, or the final battle between the gods of light and the gods of darkness, in which only the chosen good people remain and the wicked are annihilated.
* Catastrophic Rampage:
The catastrophic collapse of the laws of life, harmony, and order, distorted by the uncontrollable rampage of human wisdom, desires, or artificial intelligence, leading to the self-destruction of civilization.
* Invasion:
Nightmarish transformations caused by physical destruction, mental and physical erosion, and existential distortion resulting from attacks and invasions by aliens or other dimensions that defy Earth’s perception, human intellect, laws, and defenses.
* Decline:
Not dynamic destruction or collapse, but a decline in civilizational vitality based on a sense of loss of hope, dreams, and the future due to the spread of disease, the depletion of the land, and the exhaustion of resources.
2. Horrifying Memories and Trauma:
* Shocking Experiences and Memories:
– Fragmentary images of terror that remain vividly in memory, such as intense light, sound, smell, or specific emotions.
– Overwhelming feelings of despair and helplessness based on sensory memories in the face of phenomena beyond human comprehension or control, such as the color of a giant shadow covering the sky, the roar of the earth splitting, or a burning, foul odor.
* Scars Etched in Mind and Body:
– Nightmares or flashbacks where fear is vividly resurfaced by minor events, stemming from trauma caused by extreme experiences during apocalyptic phenomena.
– Feelings of mental confinement or hyperactivity due to survivor’s guilt.
* Wandering Mind:
– Mental struggle to find meaning in incomprehensible events and unreasonable experiences resulting from apocalyptic phenomena, such as the wrath of the gods, some kind of omen or premonition, or the responsibility of a specific individual or group.
– An extremely subjective interpretation or conclusion that is filtered and recognized through personal experiences, beliefs, and values.
* Helplessness:
– A feeling of linguistic helplessness arising from the difficulty of accurately conveying in words the experience of unspeakable terror and despair.
– Disappointment and silence based on the inability to accurately convey the terrifying experience through metaphors or symbolic expressions.
* Temporal effects and transformation of memory:
– Details and overall outlines of events that fade or become ambiguous with the passage of time.
– Reconstruction of narratives with added idealization or distortion due to the unfixed nature of memory.
3. The Genesis of Legends:
(ref., The Timeless Value Of Oral Literature And Fables)
* Sharing of Memories:
– As apocalyptic experiences are shared within a community, they gradually take shape as legends, contributing to the formation of the community’s identity and values.
– Countless personal accounts merge or are selected and discarded, forming a coherent narrative for the community.
* Creation of Lessons and Hope:
– The generation of allegorical legends containing meaning and lessons provides hope and guidance for the future.
– Legends formed with cause and effect, and measures to prevent the recurrence of tragedy, lead to the creation of community behavioral norms and goals.
* Symbolism of the Story:
– By incorporating symbolism such as rewarding good and punishing evil or heroic tales, the story is refined to remain in memory and be passed down.
– The typification of character portrayals leads to a clarification of the good-versus-evil conflict and a simplification of the lessons.
* Supplementation and Creativity:
– The essential role of the narrator’s imagination and creativity in adding new episodes and interpretations to fill in the gaps, inconsistencies, and voids in the narrative as a grand record.
– Enhancing the depth of the story by supplementing it with compelling and creative elements.
* Inheritance:
– Deeply imprinted on the mind and solidified as memory through repeated retelling in bedtime stories and community gatherings.
– Sublimated as a truth within the community through fine-tuning of details to suit the local culture and characteristics.
4. The Cradle Stage and Mythologization:
* Aspects of the Heroic Image:
– In a desperate apocalypse, those who lead people without giving up hope until the very end, or who confront disaster with overwhelming power, are deified as symbols of courage and hope for living through difficult times, and are exaggerated, glorified, and passed down through generations.
– Even tragic heroes who, no matter how hard they tried, could not save their people or comrades, highlight the tragedy of the apocalypse through their regret and despair at their inability to protect them, evoking deep empathy and sorrow in people.
* Evil as a Draft Character:
– The creation and establishment of villains who drive the narrative, creating the story as embodiments of chaos, apostles of destruction, and the cause of the apocalypse.
– Evil, a wicked and powerful force that becomes the object of fear and anger, strengthens the unity of the community as a common enemy.
* Prophet or Sage as a Brave Good:
– Create and define a good role as a brave individual who strives to foresee and decipher the meaning of the end times and issues warnings, or a sage who imparts wisdom for reconstruction after the end times.
– Inherit prophecies and the words of sages that serve as important guideposts to prepare for future apocalyptic crises.
* Miracle or Salvation:
– Miracles or supernatural salvation in desperate situations at the end of the world through the intervention of gods or the help of legendary sacred beasts.
– The sanctification of memories of supernatural salvation.
* Memorials and Rituals:
– Memorials and rituals held as part of tradition to mourn the deaths of victims of apocalyptic disasters and calamities and to appease their souls.
– Memorials for victims and anniversaries of death honoring heroes and saints serve as a driving force for spiritual activities in which the community remembers past tragedies, learns lessons from them, and moves forward into the future.
5. The End and Rebirth:
* Apocalyptic Devastation and Post-Apocalypse as a Stage:
In the ruins of a pre-civilization and mutated ecosystems devastated and destroyed by the apocalypse, old values
* Rediscovering Lost Wisdom:
– An epic story woven from adventure and quest to rediscover and revive the advanced civilization, wisdom, and knowledge lost in the apocalypse.
* Building a New Order:
– A fundamental re-examination of the pre-society’s ways and values, creating a new social order and ethics to build a better future.
* The Influence of Apocalyptic Memories:
– The influence on the narrative stemming from deep-seated trauma or a special sense of mission, shaped by subconscious thoughts, behavioral principles, and character development.
* Repetition and Avoidance:
The struggles and battles in which lessons from the past are put to use to avoid recurring signs of apocalyptic apocalypse and catastrophic crises.
According to inflation theory, the Big Bang occurred when the vacuum energy rapidly expanded in an extremely short period of about 10⁻³⁵ seconds immediately after the universe’s birth, generating a vast amount of thermal energy. Similarly, a transitional moment or period, a kind of buffer, is essential between the end and the beginning, and some insurmountable conditions are necessary for resuscitation, which marks the line from death to life.
* Lack of time leeway:
The transition period is extremely short, or there is almost no leeway left.
* A heavy price to pay:
Resuscitation requires some kind of sacrifice, making it a difficult choice.
* Rare practitioners, resuscitation drugs, or techniques:
Resuscitation is only possible through specific practitioners, drugs, or techniques.
If resuscitation is made possible as a form of salvation, it will lead to the concept of eternal youth and immortality, diminishing the weight of death in exchange for hope. Conversely, if it is made impossible, it will lead to an appreciation of the preciousness of each individual life, in exchange for the harshness of the circumstances. In either case, the possibility or impossibility of resuscitation becomes a fundamental law that defines our views on life and death. (ref., Immortality And The Future Of Lifespan)
In any case, each perspective on the end of the universe as fate holds its own unique meaning and value, and can serve as a catalyst for clarifying each individual’s moral values, way of life, sense of purpose, and meaning of existence.
In a future civilization, which may be built upon sacrifice, salvation, and purification to create a new order, considering the cycle of the end of the universe and a new beginning at this time can become a driving force for new hope and action for the future. This is because it will lead to the creation of a society where people and nature respect harmony and coexistence, possess tolerance that values
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