In the era before location detection technologies such as GPS (Global Positioning System) using artificial satellites, latitude and longitude were determined using the positions of stars and the sun, along with highly accurate clocks.
While the basic method for ships to determine their position at sea was celestial navigation, which involved observing landmarks and lighthouses, the Age of Discovery began in the 15th century, and as ships began to sail across the oceans, they could no longer rely solely on this method, leading to the adoption of dead reckoning.
This method involves recording the direction, speed, and duration of a ship’s movement, and then connecting these segments from the last known position to determine the current location. While this method has the advantage of being usable even in bad weather conditions that prevent observation, it has the disadvantage of accumulating errors during long ocean voyages. To overcome this, celestial navigation was adopted, which involves observing celestial bodies to measure position (latitude and longitude).
To determine latitude, the north-south position, what is needed (in the Northern Hemisphere) is the angle of the North Star from the horizon, and highly accurate measuring instruments for use on ships were developed relatively early.
For longitude, by measuring the sun’s meridian passage at the current location to determine local noon, and then finding the difference between that and the standard time at longitude 0 degrees (the prime meridian), the longitude can be determined. However, this requires knowing the standard time on board the ship. Furthermore, during the Age of Discovery, there was no universally accepted 0-degree longitude, meaning that sailors at the time relied on maps created with different standards, embarking on perilous voyages into the unknown.
While large, fixed pendulum clocks and spring-driven pocket watches from the early 18th century had improved accuracy due to reduced expansion and contraction of metal parts caused by temperature changes and improved viscosity of lubricants, achieving accuracy of only a few seconds to a few minutes per day, these clocks did not function reliably in the harsh conditions on board ships, with temperature fluctuations and violent vibrations. Moreover, it was essentially impossible to adjust the time while sailing on the open ocean.
In 1707, a major disaster occurred when four British naval ships, due to miscalculations of longitude and resulting positional errors, struck reefs off the Scilly Islands and sank, claiming the lives of approximately 2,000 people.
Following this, Britain launched an effort to develop technology for accurately measuring longitude, aiming for a longitude error of 0.5 degrees (equivalent to about 3 seconds of daily clock variation) during voyages between Britain and the West Indies. Astronomers attempted to put into practice the lunar distance method, a theory proposed in the 16th century, which involved measuring the angle (angular distance) between the observation point and reference celestial bodies such as the moon and the sun, and then comparing this with pre-calculated nautical almanacs to determine absolute time.
Around 1757, the sextant, an instrument for measuring celestial angles, was first put into practical use. Based on the improved accuracy of lunar ephemerides made possible by advancements in astronomy, Nautical Almanac containing the angular distances between the moon and other reference celestial bodies for each day and time were published in 1767.
Meanwhile, clockmaker John Harrison embarked on developing a high-precision clock that would function on board a ship – the marine chronometer. He made various inventions, including a grasshopper escapement that operated accurately even with friction and vibration, a balance wheel made of different metals with varying expansion rates to compensate for temperature changes, and a maintaining power mechanism that kept the clock running even while winding the mainspring, and completed the H4 chronometer, about 13 centimeters in diameter, in 1761.
These timekeeping methods developed in the 18th century laid the foundation for Britain, which had lagged behind the Portugal and Spain during the Age of Discovery, to establish maritime supremacy in the 19th century. Specifically, they led to increased competitiveness and efficiency through reduced transportation times, lower maritime insurance rates due to improved safety, and a reduction in port calls for time synchronization. The resulting advantages in speed, cost-effectiveness, and safety allowed the British merchant fleet to become highly competitive and surpass other nations.
In addition, this led to improvements in naval power, enabling the British to move and coordinate multiple fleets at designated times in any location across the oceans. This allowed them to guarantee the safety of sea lanes worldwide, suppress piracy, and expand the free trade system.
The selection of Greenwich as the world’s prime meridian at the 1884 international conference was a direct result of Britain’s overwhelming national power at the time, and the fact that British charts and nautical almanacs had become the international standard. The marine chronometer technology developed at Greenwich can be said to have laid the foundation for the British maritime hegemony of the 19th century, known as Pax Britannica.
Furthermore, in Britain, one of the earliest capitalist nations, the Second Industrial Revolution erupted in the late 18th century, ushering in a golden age as the most advanced industrial nation. Seeking essential raw materials and vast markets for its industrial development, Britain intensified its expansionist policies, and by 1914, it had colonized areas of the world more than 140 times the size of its mainland, becoming known as the “empire on which the sun never sets.”
Meanwhile, the practical application of the compass in navigation is said to have enabled long-distance voyages for European countries, leading to the Age of Discovery. The compass is a device that indicates the absolute direction of the Earth’s magnetic north, regardless of weather or time of day, allowing for accurate navigation in the open ocean where land is not visible.
The origins of the compass date back to the Warring States period in ancient China (5th century BC – 3rd century BC). The earliest form is said to be the Sinan (司南), which took advantage of the property that a polished, spoon-shaped natural magnet (magnetite) always points south when placed on a flat copper plate. It was primarily used as a tool for feng shui and divination.
During the Qin (221 BC – 206 BC) and Han (206 BC – 220 AD) dynasties, the properties of magnets became better understood, leading to improvements in techniques for accurately measuring direction in military and surveying applications.
It was not until the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties that the compass became a practical tool for navigation. Especially during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), the water compass (水羅針盤, where the magnetic needle floated on water) and the dry compass (乾羅針盤, where the magnetic needle was fixed) were developed. This became a crucial technology supporting the navigation of Song dynasty merchant ships in maritime trade with Southeast Asia, India, and the Arabian Peninsula, accelerating maritime expansion.
Before the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279), it is believed that the technology of the magnetic compass was transmitted to Western Islamic merchants via the Silk Road (land route) and maritime trade routes (sea route). From the late 13th to early 14th centuries, the compass, transmitted via Arabia, was improved by European navigators, evolving into a more practical navigational compass. In particular, Italian Mediterranean trading cities (such as Genoa and Venice) actively adopted the compass, leading to technological advancements, and this technology later became crucial in supporting the European Age of Discovery.
The main improvements made in Europe were:
1. The invention of the dry compass:
This adopted a method of fixing the compass card (the compass face), making it more resistant to the rocking of ships during voyages, allowing for more stable measurements and improving directional measurement during long-distance voyages.
2. The adoption of the 32-point compass:
A 32-point compass, which indicated directions in more detail, was developed, improving navigation accuracy and making it possible to venture from traditional coastal navigation to long-distance voyages across the open sea.
3. The development of the mariner’s compass:
In the 14th century, a practical magnetic compass called the mariner’s compass appeared and was used by navigators from Portugal and Spain.
Portugal, utilizing the compass for accurate route planning, sought to establish a direct trade route to Asia, bypassing the land trade routes controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Bartolomeu Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope, the southernmost point of Africa, in 1488.
Subsequently, Vasco da Gama, in 1498, sailed down the African coast, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Calicut on the west coast of India, opening a new trade route to Asia, making Portugal a pioneer in Asian trade.
The Age of Discovery, which began here and continued into the 17th century, refers to the era in which European countries, including Portugal and Spain, explored new sea routes and expanded their influence worldwide. Effectively, they found an alternative route to the Mediterranean, which was under the control of the Ottoman Empire, and were able to directly obtain valuable goods such as silk and jewels, as well as spices like pepper, cloves, and nutmeg, whose demand had increased due to the spread of meat consumption, without relying on trade through Islamic merchants.
From the late 16th to the 17th century, the Netherlands and Great Britain rose to prominence in maritime trade. The Netherlands established the Dutch East India Company in 1602, dominating Asian trade from its base in Indonesia and gradually displacing Portuguese influence, achieving great success in the spice trade.
Great Britain expanded its influence primarily in India, establishing the British East India Company in 1600 and granting it a monopoly, actively engaging in trading activities in Asia. One of the factors behind this was the established superiority of the British Navy. Henry VIII (reigned 1509-1547) strengthened the navy, solidifying Britain’s foundation as a maritime power, and Elizabeth I (reigned 1558-1603) condoned privateering (state-sponsored piracy), allowing privateers to plunder Spanish and Portuguese ships, thereby increasing national power. This allowed Britain to displace the pioneers who had dominated the Asian trade market and seize control, expanding trade with India, Southeast Asia, and China.
Incidentally, the event that decisively propelled England to become a leading maritime power was the Battle of the Spanish Armada in 1588, where the British fleet, using fire ships in a surprise attack off the coast of Calais, France, defeated the Spanish Armada that had been sent to invade England.
However, due to an attack by the Dutch East India Company, known as the Amboyna Massacre (1623), which stemmed from a dispute over the monopolization of the spice trade, the British spice trade failed. They withdrew from Southeast Asia (Indonesia), relocated their base to India, and primarily dealt with the export of Indian silk, cotton, and calico, as well as Chinese tea, to Europe.
Following this, in 1662, the culture of tea drinking entered the British royal court through the marriage of Charles II to Catherine of Braganza, a Portuguese princess, leading to the birth of afternoon tea culture. The East India Company’s acquisition of a tea monopoly drastically increased tea imports to Britain. Because British water is hard and unsuitable for drinking, people began brewing and drinking tea leaves imported from China, and tea, once a luxury enjoyed by the aristocracy, became popular among the common people.
Furthermore, to compensate for the outflow of silver, Britain improved its silver circulation by smuggling opium into the Qing Dynasty. However, the resulting increase in opium addiction within the Qing Dynasty led to social problems that eventually escalated into the Opium Wars (1840-1842). The defeated Qing Dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing, which imposed heavy reparations and the cession of territories such as Hong Kong.
Further tea-related events occurred, such as the Boston Tea Party (1773), and for more topics related to this period, including the triangular trade aimed at preventing the outflow of silver from Britain, please refer to my previous blog post about tea.
Meanwhile, the British East India Company, based in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, defeated the French East India Company in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, successfully gaining dominance in India. It evolved from a mere trading company into a political power that controlled India.
However, during this period, discontent with British rule gradually increased in India. In 1857, Indian sepoys (mercenaries) revolted against the British East India Company, citing the use of cartridges greased with beef and pork fat for the newly introduced rifles. This rebellion escalated into a large-scale uprising that spread throughout India (the Indian Mutiny).
The British East India Company suppressed the rebellion after about a year and a half, but the British government viewed this as a failure of Indian governance. In 1858, all powers, including administrative control of the Indian colonies, were transferred to the British Crown, ending the company’s approximately 250 years of activity. In 1874, the company officially ceased operations after completing its liquidation, and the British Indian Empire, with Queen Victoria as Empress, was established.
In any case, the spices that are widely used in everyday life today were brought to Europe through the East India Company, and are the result of innovations in maritime navigation technology, the discovery of new trade routes, and fierce competition over trade privileges. Furthermore, in the 19th century, curry powder and British-style curry were created, which were blends of spices that adapted traditional Indian spice combinations to European tastes.
Spices are an indispensable element in Indian food culture, and their origins can be traced back to ancient India, with evidence found in the Indus Valley Civilization around 2500 BC.
Spices come in many varieties, but they are generally classified as follows:
* Seed-based: Pepper, cumin, coriander, fennel, etc.
* Root/Bulb-based: Ginger, garlic, turmeric, etc.
* Bark-based: Cinnamon, cassia, magnolia, etc.
* Leaf-based: Basil, oregano, etc.
* Flower/Bud-based: Cloves, saffron, etc.
* Fruit-based: Chili peppers, allspice, etc.
* Resin/Sap-based: Asafoetida, etc.
* Pungent spices: Chili peppers, black pepper, mustard → Promotes sweating and metabolism.
* Aromatic spices: Cardamom, cinnamon, cloves → Relaxation effect, promotes digestion.
* Coloring spices: Turmeric, paprika → Antioxidant, stimulates appetite.
* Herb-based spices: Basil, rosemary, thyme → Antibacterial, mental support.
Spices offer a variety of benefits when used in cooking:
* Eliminating unpleasant odors:
Their unique flavors help mask or eliminate unpleasant odors in food.
* Preservative and antibacterial effects:
Their preservative and antibacterial properties help maintain food quality, and when used with salt, they can extend the shelf life of food.
* Appetite stimulation:
Their unique flavors and spiciness can stimulate appetite.
* Coloring effect:
Their distinctive colors can be used as natural food coloring, making dishes look more appealing.
* Adding texture:
Texture is an important element in making food delicious, and spices can add various textures to a dish.
Beyond simply flavoring everyday meals, spices are deeply intertwined with all aspects of life, including social customs, religious rituals, and medicine. Geographical conditions, natural environment, ancient trade routes, and the coexistence of diverse ethnic groups and religions have all contributed to tthe complex systems of spice use that vary from region to region and community to community, resulting in the development of unique cultural traditions.
* The humid climate of South India is suitable for cultivating fragrant crops such as cardamom and cloves, while cumin and coriander have been widely grown in drier regions.
* From the time of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, spices were used not only for food but also for preservation and medicinal purposes, and were exported through trade routes connecting to the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and China.
* Religious backgrounds, such as Hinduism and Islam, also influenced the uses and combinations of spices. In regions where meat consumption is avoided, spices were used to complement plant-based ingredients, enhancing satisfaction through aroma and spiciness. Conversely, in regions where meat dishes are common, spices developed to mask odors and enhance flavor.
* In the traditional Ayurvedic medicine system, each spice is believed to have specific effects tailored to individual constitutions and seasons, and has been incorporated into dietary therapies for maintaining health.
Regionally, in the humid Bengal region of eastern India, which has many rivers and is close to the sea, mustard oil and fenugreek are used to flavor dishes, while in the dry western state of Gujarat, a unique blend combining sweetness and sourness is characteristic. In the hot and humid tropical climate of the southern region, cumin, mustard seeds, and curry leaves are heated in oil to release their aroma and are used in soups such as sambar and rasam. In the northern region, which experiences significant temperature fluctuations, a unique garam masala is used along with blends based on turmeric, coriander, and cumin.
Spices are also indispensable in religious rituals and life cycle ceremonies: turmeric is used as a symbol of auspiciousness for purification before weddings, saffron is added to celebratory dishes, and cardamom and nutmeg are added to festive sweets and beverages.
Furthermore, ancient knowledge about the anti-inflammatory properties of turmeric and the digestive benefits of ginger has been scientifically validated and applied to the fields of health foods and supplements.
In any case, let’s list some of the widely known uses of spices.
1. Use of spices in health management and medicine:
The origins of Ayurveda, an ancient Indian medical system, are said to date back more than 5000 years before Christ. Based on the Vedas, the ancient Indian scriptures, spices have been used as an important element to maintain and promote health and well-being by balancing the body, mind, and spirit.
Based on the following four concepts, treatment methods tailored to individual health conditions, such as herbal therapy, oil massage, yoga and meditation, and dietary therapy, are said to effectively prevent and treat physical ailments and diseases, especially reducing stress and promoting mental health.
* Dosha (body type):
Vata, Pitta, and Kapha are the main energies that regulate physiological and psychological characteristics in the body. Vata governs movement and change, Pitta governs metabolism and digestion, and Kapha governs the body’s structure and fluid balance. These are elements that shape an individual’s health and personality, and an imbalance in these elements is considered to be the cause of illness. Understanding individual characteristics and maintaining balance is considered key to maintaining health.
• Vata constitution:
Because individuals with this constitution tend to be prone to cold and dryness, warm, oily, and easily digestible foods are recommended. Cold drinks and raw vegetables should be consumed in moderation.
• Pitta constitution:
Because individuals with this constitution tend to be prone to heat and sensitive to stimulation, cooling foods with sweet, bitter, and astringent tastes are recommended. Spicy and sour foods should be consumed in moderation.
• Kapha constitution:
Because individuals with this constitution tend to be heavy and sluggish, light, warm, and dry foods are recommended. Oily and sweet foods should be consumed in moderation.
Furthermore, the energy inherent in the food itself (taste: rasa, warming/cooling properties: virya, post-digestive effect: vipaka) is also considered, and since digestive power changes depending on the season and time of day, it is considered important to adjust one’s diet accordingly.
* Prakriti (Innate Constitution):
An individual’s inherent constitution, which remains unchanged from birth, is based on a combination of various doshas. By understanding one’s Prakriti, it is believed that treatment methods can be determined, and health can be maintained to the fullest extent.
* Ahara (Diet):
Proper nutrition is essential for maintaining health. Beyond simply nourishing the body, a diet tailored to an individual’s Dosha and Prakriti is a crucial element in maintaining overall health and balance of mind and spirit.
* Vihara (Lifestyle):
Healthy behaviors and lifestyle habits in daily life are essential for overall well-being. Through appropriate exercise, quality sleep, and effective stress management, it is believed that physical and mental health can be maintained, and one can move closer to an ideal state of health.
2. Use of Spices in Food Preservation:
Spices possess natural antibacterial and antioxidant properties, which inhibit food oxidation and prevent microbial growth, thus extending food shelf life. They also add flavor and aroma to food and are rich in vitamins and minerals, making them an ideal and healthy method of food preservation.
3. Use of Spices in Flavoring Dishes:
Made from various parts of plants, including roots, seeds, stems, and fruits, spices are indispensable elements for enhancing the flavor of dishes and are used in a wide variety of cuisines worldwide today.
* Black Pepper:
From ancient times to the Middle Ages, black pepper was a rare and luxurious commodity enjoyed only by the nobility and wealthy. In ancient Rome, it was called “black gold” and traded at the same value as gold. It was used to mask the odor of meat dishes and enhance their flavor, and it was a catalyst for the beginning of the Age of Discovery in medieval Europe and the Spice Wars, truly a spice that could be called a symbol of power.
The pungent component, piperine, provides not only a sharp, stimulating spiciness but also contributes to the aroma, sensation, and aftertaste of food. Furthermore, it promotes the secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes, leading to improved digestive function and enhanced nutrient absorption. It also possesses various other physiological effects, including antioxidant properties.
* Cumin:
A central spice in Indian cuisine, characterized by its warm, nutty flavor, and known for its digestive benefits. It has effects such as improving digestion, promoting appetite, and reducing fever, and it can alleviate diarrhea and abdominal pain. It also has antioxidant properties and can boost the immune system. It is also used to prevent cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
* Cardamom:
Characterized by its exotic and powerful aroma, it adds a sweet and spicy flavor to dishes. It is also used in incense, chai tea, and desserts. It has effects such as relieving fatigue, improving digestion, alleviating cold hands and feet, removing excess oil, and calming the mind. It is also effective in preventing bad breath and eliminating body odor. It also has health benefits such as suppressing blood sugar levels and lowering blood lipid levels.
* Turmeric:
This spice is characterized by its vibrant yellow color, similar to saffron. It is used as a coloring and flavoring agent, adding warmth and an earthy flavor to dishes. It is known to aid digestion and improve metabolism. It also has excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and is believed to be effective in improving overall health and treating skin conditions, offering various health benefits. Furthermore, it is said that drinking it before consuming alcohol can help promote the function of the liver, the organ responsible for metabolizing alcohol.
* Cloves:
Cloves are the dried flower buds of an evergreen tree native to the Moluccas Islands of Indonesia. The tree blooms twice a year, in summer and winter, producing small pink flowers. The buds are harvested just before they open and then dried. Cloves have a pungent, slightly bitter taste and a sweet, rich aroma, and are used to mask the odor of meat.
They have antibacterial and antiseptic properties and are used to improve digestive function, also serving as a herbal medicine and aromatic stomachic. The component eugenol has strong antibacterial and bactericidal effects, being effective against bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli. They are also rich in antioxidants such as polyphenols, which remove free radicals in the body and prevent cell aging. They are also effective in preserving food and maintaining oral hygiene.
* Cinnamon:
The essential oil extracted from the bark of the cinnamon tree, one of the world’s oldest spices, has antibacterial and invigorating effects, and is also said to be effective in preventing bad breath and improving skin condition. Furthermore, because it contains antioxidants, it helps suppress reactive oxygen species, and is expected to have various positive effects on the brain. Its sweet and spicy aroma enhances mental concentration, and it also helps stabilize blood sugar levels and provides antioxidant benefits, thus contributing to overall health maintenance.
* Chili peppers:
Characterized by their fragrant aroma and spiciness, they have the effect of promoting blood circulation and increasing metabolism. Furthermore, capsaicin, their main component, raises body temperature, promotes fat burning, and increases basal metabolism, thus supporting weight loss.
* Ginger:
A familiar ingredient widely used in Asian cuisine, ginger is characterized by its sweet and spicy flavor. It contains a compound called gingerol, which offers various benefits, including relieving stomach discomfort, reducing inflammation, and aiding digestion. Because of its warming effect on the body, it is often used as a folk remedy for colds, and it has many other benefits such as promoting sweating, aiding digestion, warming the body, reducing fever, reducing inflammation, and alleviating nausea.
* Garam Masala:
Garam masala is made by blending spices such as coriander, cumin, cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger, adding a deep aroma and rich flavor to dishes. It is used in soups, stews, and stir-fries, and is commonly added at the end of cooking.
Masala is originally a Sanskrit-derived word meaning a mixture or blend. In Ayurveda, spices are blended according to body type, season, and symptoms for therapeutic purposes. This blending technique was then applied to cooking, and during the Mughal Empire, which ruled northern India from the 13th to the 19th centuries, the technique of layering multiple spices was refined, leading to the development of fragrant court cuisine. This is considered to be the root of garam masala (an aromatic spice mix).
Masala blends are diverse, as they are created to match the properties of the ingredients, taking into account both medicinal effects and flavor. For example, there are masalas blended with spices that aid digestion for beans, spices that eliminate fishy odors for fish, and spices that provide warmth for meat.
* Garam Masala (aromatic)
* Chaat Masala (tangy powder)
* Sambar Masala (for South Indian lentil soup)
* Chicken Masala
* Tandoori Masala
The unique climate, ingredients, water quality, and religious beliefs of each region are directly reflected in the blend of spices used in the masala, and furthermore, the individual, distinctive flavors passed down through each family are inherited by future generations.
In addition to those listed above, there are many other spices, including fennel, allspice, nutmeg, star anise, caraway, cayenne pepper, paprika, bay leaf, kaffir lime, lemongrass, Sichuan peppercorns, Japanese pepper (sansho), and wasabi. Furthermore, some of these spices play a crucial role in defining the characteristics, flavors, and uniqueness of regional and local cuisines.
Curry is a dish originating in India, made by combining spices and simmering ingredients. Its name is believed to derive from the Tamil word “kari,” meaning “ingredients for soup,” or “karil,” referring to a stir-fry of vegetables or meat seasoned with spices.
Indians themselves don’t use the word “curry,” instead using specific names for each dish such as sabzi, saag, sambar,,korma, and dal. However, during the Age of Discovery in the 17th century, the British, who ruled India as a colony, called these spice-infused stews “curry,” introducing it to mainland Britain as an exotic and easily understood dish, and even adding it to the royal menu.
By the end of the 18th century, Crosse & Blackwell (C&B) in Britain began commercially selling pre-mixed spices as “curry powder,” which then spread from the upper classes to ordinary households in European countries.
Furthermore, to address the labor shortage caused by the emancipation of slaves in the colonies following the abolition of slavery in 1833, Britain subsequently sent approximately 1.5 million Indians over a period of 80 years to colonies such as Mauritius, South Africa, Fiji, Guyana, and the Caribbean, where they worked on plantations, sugarcane fields, and rubber plantations. This led to the introduction and spread of curry powder throughout British colonies worldwide.
Moreover, in order to secure its opium smuggling route to China, Britain established the Straits Settlements in Penang and Malacca on the Malay Peninsula, which faces the strategically important Strait of Malacca, as well as in Singapore. This further expanded the reach of curry into regions where fish sauce and soy sauce were traditionally used. For example, dishes such as Hong Kong’s Gah-lay, curry-flavored stir-fried vermicelli rice noodles (aka Singapore noodles), and Thailand’s Laeng Kari (aka yellow curry), were developed during this period.
Meanwhile, in mainland Britain, curry dishes served as a form of “colonial hospitality” by officials, marines, merchants, and sailors returning from India gained popularity, leading to the publication of cookbooks featuring British-style curry recipes. Some of these recipes incorporated Western traditional cooking methods, such as simmering vegetables like onions and potatoes with apples and soup stock, adding curry powder, thickening the sauce with a roux, and finishing with cream.
In essence, by using a brown sauce (roux) made by heating butter, adding flour until it turns brown, and then thinning it with bouillon, or by using a demi-glace sauce made by adding stock (fond de veau) to the brown sauce and reducing it by half, the watery consistency of Indian curries was transformed into a thicker, richer texture.
This concept of British curry roux was introduced to Japan, and later not only formed a culture of national cuisine but also led to transformations in social lifestyles, brought about technological innovations in instant foods, and eventually spread globally.
It is said that British home-style curry, a dish consisting of meat and vegetables simmered in a roux made with curry powder and flour until thickened, was introduced to Japan in 1859, the year after the signing of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Japan and the United States, when the port of Yokohama was opened during the late Edo period.
In 1873, cookbooks such as “Western Cuisine Guide (西洋料理指南)” and “Western Cuisine Expert (西洋料理通)” were published, introducing the cooking method of using curry powder and thickening the sauce with flour.
Incidentally, the method for making roux that is commonly found in cookbooks today involves adding ginger and garlic to a pot with oil and sautéing them until fragrant, then adding thinly sliced onions and cooking them until the moisture evaporates and they turn a crispy golden brown. After that, flour is added and lightly sautéed to prevent burning, and finally, curry powder (or a blend of spices) is added and lightly cooked to create the roux. This is essentially the same process as sautéing onions until they turn brown and crispy when making French onion soup, which brings out their sweetness.
When making curry from scratch using a blend of spices instead of commercially available curry powder, the following points should be kept in mind:
1. Understand the characteristics of each spice.
This includes the aroma, properties, role, and effects of each spice.
2. Selection based on form and quality.
The taste of spices varies depending on their form, manufacturing method, and origin. For spices such as seeds or bark, decide whether to use them whole, crushed, or in powder form.
3. Understand the role of each spice.
Consider factors such as aroma (aromatic effect), color (visual effect), spiciness (stimulating effect), medicinal properties (health benefits), and odor masking, and blend the spices considering their individual roles.
The following ratios can be considered as a basic guideline for spice blending:
i) For aroma, consider the balance of three types of scents: sweet, spicy, and refreshing.
* Sweet aroma: Cinnamon, cardamom, fennel.
* Spicy aroma: Red pepper, black pepper, ginger.
* Refreshing aroma: Coriander, cumin, lemongrass.
ii) Basic ratio of base spices, accent spices, and stimulating spices.
* Base spices (70%): Turmeric, cumin, coriander.
* Accent spices (20%): Garam masala, fennel, cardamom.
* Stimulating spices (10%): Red pepper, cloves, cinnamon.
Note: The final taste of the curry is ultimately determined by the amount of salt.
4. Consider harmony.
Based on the desired finished taste and aroma, blend the spices in a way that they complement each other and create a harmonious flavor profile.
5. Use sparingly.
It’s best to use spices sparingly; avoid using too much to prevent any single spice from overpowering the others.
In 1876, Dr. William S. Clark, known for his famous quote “Boys, be ambitious,” who had been appointed to Hokkaido Agricultural College (now Hokkaido University), suggested that a curry dish made with potatoes, carrots, and onions—ingredients known as local specialties—be served to improve the nutritional status of the students. At that time, it was called “rice curry.” These vegetables later became standard ingredients in Japanese curry.
Japonica rice is medium-grain and has a sticky texture when cooked, so the thick curry is served alongside the rice, like a gravy or side dish. Therefore, it can be described as a dish similar to a donburi (rice bowl dish), where soft scrambled eggs are used to bind the ingredients together and then placed on top of steamed rice. In contrast, in India, long-grain basmati rice, which is less sticky, or naan bread, is dipped into or soaked in the thinner curry sauce.
In 1874, rice curry began to be served at military academies that trained army officers, as a nutritionally balanced meal intended to reduce beriberi, a disease that was considered a problem at the time due to the arbitrary dietary practices of military personnel. Subsequently, in 1908, the Japanese Navy, which modeled itself after the British Navy, adopted a British-style curry, adapting it to Japanese tastes. This military-style Japanese curry rice then spread to households throughout the country.
Here’s a summary of the naval curry recipe from that time:
* Ingredients:
Beef (or chicken), carrots, onions, potatoes, salt, curry powder, flour, rice.
* Instructions:
Cut the meat, onions, carrots, and potatoes into small, dice-like cubes and sauté them. Heat beef fat in a pan, sauté the flour until golden brown, add the curry powder and broth, then add the meat and vegetables and simmer over low heat. Season with salt. Serve over rice cooked in broth, accompanied by pickles (chutney).
However, it is nearly impossible to buy a wide variety of Southeast Asian spices in Japan and cook curry at home, and the fact that it has evolved into a common household dish that anyone can make is undeniably the result of technological innovation and ingenuity that met the demands of the public.
In 1923, the production of domestically produced curry powder by Yamazaki Shoten (now S&B Foods) laid the foundation for curry to evolve into a national dish. Initially, they produced pre-mixed spices as curry powder for commercial use, and in 1930, they launched “Hidori Brand Curry Powder (ヒドリ印カレー粉),” the first domestically produced curry powder for home use, bringing a standardized curry flavor to society.
In 1928, Uragami Shoten (now House Foods), which primarily dealt in spice wholesale, began selling “Home Curry Powder,” playing a pioneering role alongside S&B in establishing household curry powder brands.
In the early days, homemade curry was prepared by sautéing flour in oil without burning it, similar to making béchamel sauce, and then adding curry powder to create the roux. This method made it difficult to consistently achieve the same taste and consistency.
After the turmoil of the post-war period, House Foods, which resumed operations in 1949, developed “Instant House Curry,” a powdered roux, in 1952. This product combined traditional curry powder, which is pre-mixed spices, with ingredients that dissolved easily and produced a stable viscosity. This simplified the cooking process, making it instant, and allowed anyone to easily reproduce the same taste and consistency.
Furthermore, during the period of rapid economic growth from 1954 onwards, instant foods underwent remarkable development. It was during this time, characterized by a fast-paced lifestyle, that solid-type curry roux was introduced, starting with S&B Foods’ “S&B Curry,” followed by House Foods’ “House Indian Curry,” and Glico’s “One-Touch Curry,” among others.
A phenomenon that further revolutionized the perception of curry was the introduction of House Foods’ “Vermont Curry” in 1963, which used apples and honey to create a mild and sweet flavor. This challenged the conventional idea of curry as a spicy, adult-oriented dish, transforming it into a meal that even young children could enjoy, allowing the whole family to share the same pot.
In short, the transformation from curry powder to solid curry roux not only eliminated the risk of failure in curry making, making it easy for anyone to prepare a delicious dish, but also made it a staple “gathering food” for family dinners, children’s camps, and community gatherings, as it could be easily and quickly prepared in large quantities and enjoyed by everyone.
As economic prosperity increased, nuclear families, individual eating habits, and the individualization of lifestyles and consumption patterns progressed. This trend was reflected in instant curry products, leading to the development of solid curry roux with varying levels of spiciness—mild, medium, and hot—based on the concept of product development tailored to individual preferences. Furthermore, the solid curry roux was scored, allowing it to be easily broken into smaller portions.
During this period of economic vibrancy, when even the post-war reconstruction mindset was fading, a situation arose that fundamentally transformed food culture itself: the introduction of Otsuka Foods’ “Bon Curry” in 1968, which utilized the groundbreaking technological innovation of the world’s first mass-produced retort food.
The retort sterilization method, which involves heat-sterilizing sealed pouches, not only provided high preservation and incredibly easy preparation but also offered ultimate convenience: simply warming the pouch containing the curry with ingredients like potatoes and carrots in hot water allowed for consumption anytime, anywhere.
This led to a two-tiered structure: solid roux for making curry from scratch, and ready-to-eat retort curry for convenience, and Bon Curry brought about various social changes as a result.
* Liberation from the kitchen and cooking.
* Elimination of large-scale cooking and mass production.
* The ability to easily prepare a single serving as needed.
* Portability, allowing it to be carried anywhere.
* Diversification of eating locations.
etc.
Moreover, the packaging design featuring popular actress Yoko Matsuyama and the enamel advertising signs printed with glossy metallic paint are still remembered today as one of the most successful advertising campaigns ever.
Curry, which was introduced to mainland Britain from India, a British colony during the Age of Discovery, arrived in Japan from Britain in the late Edo period, just as Japan was ending its isolationist policy and on the verge of modernization.
Since then, curry has been adapted to the Japanese terroir, becoming widely accepted as a national dish, and continues to evolve and be modified in line with changing times and cultural trends.
Up to now, the standardization of flavor through spice blending has been achieved with curry powder, and the standardization of ingredients such as meat, potatoes, onions, and carrots, along with the recipe of simmering them with curry powder thickened with flour, has been achieved with solid curry roux.
With the rise of nuclear families and individual eating habits, standardization based on portion size has been achieved with adjustable solid roux and retort pouches. Furthermore, in response to the gourmet boom accompanying the economic boom of the mid-1980s, authentic spice curries emphasizing aroma and richness have emerged, leading to the standardization of unique variations.
Japanese curry is an everyday, common dish for ordinary people. However, even those who don’t usually cook or those who are particular about their food can use curry roux to create a delicious dish without failure, making it a special meal that can be prepared with care and effort. Furthermore, the various spices and their components, such as curcumin and capsaicin, have effects such as relieving fatigue, reducing stress, stimulating appetite, and providing a mood boost and renewed energy. And now, Japanese curry is gaining worldwide acceptance and spreading internationally.
During the Age of Discovery, Western powers utilized symbolic power to impose their own arbitrary values on resource-rich, weaker nations, colonizing them and creating a social structure of center and periphery. However, it is said that the core of human society tends to become stagnant and rigid, and it is always the peripheral elements that drive change and restructuring.
And now, curry, which developed as a unique food culture in Japan, a country on the periphery, is being accepted and spreading globally. In the future, too, the evolution of curry will likely be driven by ordinary people living on the periphery, those who think with their own unique values, who are not bound by convention, who seek novelty, and who possess flexible thinking.
Sincerely grateful for your financial support.
Sources and references:
Distinction by Pierre Bourdieu
