Sweetness is not perceived as a sharp sensation, but rather as a soft, pleasant, comforting, and rounded taste that is felt on the tip and throughout the tongue the moment it enters the mouth. Some sweetnesses are clearly apparent and stand out like sugar, while others blend naturally into the ingredients, supporting the overall flavor.
Sweetness, one of the five basic tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami), primarily refers to the sensation felt through components such as sugars. However, the speed at which it emerges, how it spreads, and how it blends with other flavors can change its impression. Furthermore, it’s an element that influences the overall structure of a dish, not only in terms of quantity but also quality and placement.
Sweetness has a characteristic that changes depending on its combination with other tastes. Rather than being evaluated in isolation, it is discussed in relation to other tastes. When combined with sourness, it creates lightness; when combined with bitterness, it adds depth and tranquility; and when combined with umami, it can create roundness and persistence in the flavor.
In fact, expressions like “it has a sweet taste” or “the sweetness is prominent” are used in descriptions of dishes to convey the overall impression of the dish, as follows:
* When the taste of a dish or drink is perceived as soft or rounded.
* In contexts where the balance with acidity or bitterness needs to be explained.
* When the goal is to indicate that the flavor profile is approachable.
Furthermore, sweetness can sometimes take center stage in a dish, or it can function as a supporting element that underpins the whole.
* Provides a sense of comfort: It softens strong flavors, making the overall taste more palatable.
* Connects flavors: It blends different flavors, reducing harshness, creating a smoother impression, and fostering harmony.
* Adds depth: When combined with umami and fat, it adds breadth to the flavor. It is also one of the factors that contributes to the overall depth and richness of flavor, known as “koku (酷),” which arises from the combination of multiple elements.
In Japanese cuisine, mirin is often cited as a seasoning that brings koku. This is because, unlike sugar which is almost entirely sucrose, mirin is composed of various sugars such as glucose, maltose, isomaltose, kojibiose, and trehalose. It also has a synergistic effect with soy sauce, adding breadth and depth to the sweetness and umami.
Koku does not simply mean a strong taste. As can be inferred from the clear, crisp taste that fills the mouth and gives a deep sense of kokku in a clear soup (吸い物, suimono), koku is achieved by not overpowering the flavor with the dashi, but by allowing the pure flavors of each ingredient to shine through, by stripping away unnecessary elements and focusing on umami.
Rather than an overwhelming richness that satisfies too much, the Japanese aesthetic of finding beauty in the delicacy and refinement inherent in simplicity, stripped of all unnecessary elements, is concentrated in the koku (breadth and depth) of the flavor. For the diner, it requires imagination gained through the cultivation and practice of understanding seasonality, sentiment, and harmony with nature. Taste may be a fleeting, ephemeral thing that disappears in an instant, but for the chef and the diner, taste lies in universality and continuity.
This is because taste, as a physical experience, can form the basis for concepts of desires such as love, healing, rejection, patience, and satisfaction. Sweetness, as an energy source from sugar, activates the brain’s reward system (dopamine), while bitterness, as a warning of toxicity, evokes the avoidance instinct. As metaphorical signals, sweetness brings love, happiness, and reward, while bitterness brings sadness, suffering, and moral aversion.
To add a little more, the experience of tasting sweets can lead to the promotion of prosocial behavior. It is said that consuming sweets can increase the desire to be kind to others and foster affinity, leading to a more positive evaluation of relationships, or conversely, that feelings of gratitude can increase the craving for sweets. Furthermore, it is said that consuming bitter tastes can intensify moral aversion, triggering harsher judgments of ethical violations and increased hostility, while consuming sour tastes can lead to jealousy and irritation, and consuming umami tastes can lead to feelings of satisfaction and fulfillment.
Ultimately, the craving for sweetness is a fundamental prayer for love and healing; tolerance for bitterness represents self-transcendence seeking growth and depth; taste can be a metaphorical medium for embodying innate emotional desires. The desire for sweetness is not merely a sensation, but a silent act reflecting ancient prayers for the core of existence, connection, fulfillment, and salvation.
In fact, the feeling of happiness and joy that comes from eating something sweet, which is a natural reaction for anyone, is believed to originate from memories and survival instincts from primitive times when humankind lived in harsh environments where they were constantly threatened by starvation.
In primitive times, when obtaining sufficient nutrition was a matter of life and death, the ability to perceive deliciousness was essential for animals like humans, who could not synthesize nutrients through photosynthesis, in order to obtain the nutrients necessary for survival.
Taste, one of the five senses, is a sensation that arises from the physiological recognition of substances contained in food and drink. Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami are known as the five basic tastes.
When food is consumed, taste is perceived by taste buds on the surface of the tongue. Taste buds are tiny organs invisible to the naked eye, consisting of approximately 50 to 150 cells. They are present not only on the tongue but also in the soft palate, epiglottis, and pharynx, with around 7,000 to 8,000 in the mouth.
The sense of taste (the five basic tastes), which enables us to avoid dangerous foods and recognize and consume necessary nutrients, is an essential perception for survival. The fact that sweetness brings smiles and joy can be seen as a genetically programmed survival mechanism or self-preservation instinct, as can be inferred from the classification of the role of taste.
* Tastes for obtaining nutrients:
These tastes are perceived as delicious because they provide necessary nutrients.
1. Sweetness: To obtain carbohydrates, which are an energy source.
Ripe fruit → safe and nutritious → edible.
2. Saltiness: To obtain necessary minerals.
3. Umami: To obtain protein, which builds the body.
Furthermore, the brain is said to specially treat sweetness as memorable information, sometimes reinforcing or enhancing it.
• Sweet dishes are remembered longer than other dishes.
• Experiences associated with sweetness are vividly remembered.
• Sweetness is deeply connected to emotions.
* Tastes for avoiding dangerous foods:
These tastes also serve to identify foods that should be avoided or are dangerous. For example, spoilage of high-protein foods tends to produce foul odors due to nitrogen and sulfur-containing decomposition products, while spoilage of carbohydrates produces organic acids but has a weaker odor.
4. Sourness: To avoid spoiled food.
Spoiled fruit → risk of food poisoning → inedible.
5. Bitterness: To avoid toxic components (especially plant toxins).
Toxic → potentially life-threatening → avoid consumption.
The five basic tastes are each caused by specific substances.
1. Sweetness substances:
Substances that give us a sweet taste are mainly carbohydrates. Relatively small sugar molecules exhibit sweetness, but when they link together to form high-molecular-weight molecules (starch), the sweetness disappears.
Carbohydrates composed of relatively small molecules are called monosaccharides, and examples include glucose and fructose.
When monosaccharides (for example, glucose and fructose) link together one molecule at a time, sugar (sucrose) is formed. This is called a disaccharide, and examples include maltose, lactose, and trehalose.
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are the simple carbohydrates that are the main substances that humans generally perceive as sweet.
Starch is a long chain of monosaccharides linked together like beads. Oligosaccharides, which consist of several to ten monosaccharides linked together, have a mild sweetness. Natural proteins, such as monellin and thaumatin, also have a strong sweetness.
Sweeteners other than sugars include aspartame, sucralose, and acesulfame potassium. These are substances with molecular structures that interact with sweetness receptors, and those considered highly safe are used as food additives.
2. Saltiness Substances:
The taste of salt, also known as kanmi (鹹味), is due to sodium chloride. Potassium chloride and magnesium chloride also exhibit qualitatively different saltiness, including bitterness, which can lead to unpleasant sensations. (ref., Just Salt Yet So Much More)
3. Umami Substances:
Umami is composed of monosodium glutamate and is classified into amino acids, nucleic acid-related substances, and organic acids. Dashi, an essential ingredient in Japanese cuisine, is an aqueous solution extracted from kelp, bonito flakes, and other umami components. When multiple umami components other than succinic acid are combined, they create a synergistic effect that further enhances the umami flavor. (ref., Shojin Cuisine For Spiritual Awakening And Well-Being)
1) Amino Acids:
* L-Sodium Glutamate:
– Umami component of kelp.
– Sodium salt of glutamic acid, one of the amino acids that make up proteins.
– Glutamic acid is abundant in cheese, tomatoes, tea, leeks, and Chinese cabbage.
– Theanine, an ethylamide of glutamic acid, is an umami component of green tea.
* L-aspartic acid:
– An umami component found abundantly in asparagus.
2) Nucleic acid-related substances:
* Inosinic acid (5′-IMP):
– An umami component of bonito flakes.
– Abundant in meat and fish, and increases during maturation.
* Guanylic acid (5′-GMP):
– An umami component of mushrooms.
– Increases during drying when making dried shiitake mushrooms.
3) Organic acids:
* Succinic acid:
– An umami component of shellfish.
– A dicarboxylic acid (an organic acid with two carboxyl groups), also found in sake.
– Sodium succinate, the sodium salt, is said to have a stronger umami flavor.
4. Sourness Substances:
This is the taste we perceive in response to acidic substances like citric acid, which is why lemons taste sour.
Acetic acid is also described as sour, but this is an acid produced by fermentation by acetic acid bacteria. Fermented foods containing lactic acid, which is produced by lactic acid bacteria breaking down glucose, also taste sour. The acids produced by these bacteria lower the pH, suppressing the growth of microorganisms, which is why they are used in preserved foods.
5. Bitterness Substances:
Bitterness is a taste that helps us avoid poisons. While there are only one or two types of receptors for the other four tastes, humans have 25 types of bitter taste receptors to detect various bitter substances that may be poisonous.
Not all bitter substances are poisonous, but here are some of the main ones.
1) Alkaloids:
– Also called plant bases, these are alkaline nitrogen-containing compounds produced by plants, found in caffeine (coffee, tea), theobromine (cocoa), momordicin and charantin (bitter melon), tomatine (unripe tomatoes), etc.
2) Terpenoids:
– Terpenoids are a group of compounds widely produced by eukaryotes, found in limonoids such as limonin and nomilin (citrus fruits such as lemons), theophylline (tea), humulone and isohumulone (hops used in beer), etc.
3) Amino Acids and Peptides:
– Some amino acids have a bitter taste depending on the type.
4) Inorganic Salts of Calcium and Magnesium:
– In addition to organic substances, inorganic salts such as magnesium chloride (nigari) and potassium chloride also have a bitter taste.25 types of bitter taste receptors to detect various bitter substances that may be poisonous.
Furthermore, spiciness and astringency are not physiologically tastes perceived through taste buds, but rather through thermoreceptors that sense pain and temperature. Therefore, they are sometimes referred to as auxiliary tastes, and are considered essential for appreciating the deliciousness of food.
6. Spiciness:
Capsaicin, the spicy component of chili peppers, stimulates high-temperature receptors and is perceived as a sensation similar to pain. Allyl isothiocyanate, the spicy component of wasabi, is perceived through low-temperature receptors.
7. Astringency:
Tannins, the components of astringency, also include catechins. These are abundant in tea, persimmons, and wine, and are thought to produce astringency through their astringent effect, binding to and denaturing proteins in mucous membranes.
In medicinal cuisine, the five tastes are classified as sour, bitter, sweet, spicy, and salty. Each of these tastes is associated with its effects on the human body, such as balancing qi, blood, and fluids, and regulating the functions of the five zang and six fu organs.
* Sourness (酸):
– Strengthens the function of the liver and gallbladder; associated with spring, green, and anger.
– Green vegetables and foods with sprouting power: chives, komatsuna, wild grasses, bean sprouts, sprouted brown rice, lemon, plum, vinegar, grapefruit, apple, pear, tomato, etc.
– Astringent, firming, and fluid-generating effects:
1) Has a muscle-tightening effect; acetic acid can extend the shelf life of easily spoiled fish.
2) Has an effect of suppressing excessive release or secretion; it is also used as a treatment to stop excessive sweating, bleeding, and diarrhea.
3) The sourness of apples, pears, and tomatoes is said to have a fluid-generating effect because it produces body fluids other than blood, which are essential for life activities.
4) Since it suppresses the excessive release of qi, blood, and water, it may reduce sweating and urination, so moderation is necessary.
* Bitterness (苦):
– Affects the function of the heart and small intestine; associated with summer, red, joy, and excitement.
– Leafy vegetables and bitter foods: eggplant, tomato, pickled plum, bitter melon, garland chrysanthemum, bell pepper, myoga ginger, coffee, oolong tea, black tea, etc.
– Effects of clearing heat, drying dampness, and lowering humidity:
1) It has the effect of cooling excess heat in the body, such as improving summer fatigue and fever, and drying excess water to relieve swelling.
2) It has a detoxifying and bleeding-stopping effect, and is considered effective for irregular bleeding, hematuria, bloody stools, and hemorrhoids.
3) It cools inner emotional heat and has a calming effect on the mind.
* Sweetness (甘):
– Affects the digestive system, such as the spleen, stomach, and pancreas; associated with the transitional period between seasons; yellow, worry, and anxiety.
– Yellow, naturally sweet ingredients: pumpkin, corn, brown rice, honey, sugar, banana, persimmon, bamboo shoots, corn, beef, chicken, pork, tofu, eggs, milk, grains, potatoes, etc.
– Relaxing, nourishing, and harmonizing effects:
1) It has the power to relax stiff muscles and alleviate tension, and nourishes the body while promoting digestion and absorption.
2) Excessive intake can strain the stomach and organs, impairing water metabolism and causing obesity and edema.
* Spicy (辛):
– Lungs and large intestine system, autumn, white, sadness and loneliness.
– White, spicy root vegetables: Radish, onion, lotus root, leek, etc.
– Effects of promoting sweating, fever, and elimination:
1) Warms the body, promotes respiration, improves the circulation of qi, blood, and fluids, eliminates stagnation, makes you less susceptible to colds, relieves swelling, and is effective against stiffness such as coldness and stiff shoulders.
2) Excessive consumption can cause fatigue and thirst.
* Salty taste (鹹):
– Affects the kidneys, bladder, and reproductive system; associated with winter, black, and fear.
– Black foods and dried foods: Kelp, hijiki seaweed, black beans, burdock root, adzuki beans, salt, miso, soy sauce, seaweed, shellfish, squid, octopus, shrimp, crab, etc.
– Softening and Dispersing Effects:
1) It has the effect of softening hard things and also has the power to soften and disperse lumps in the body, making it effective for improving warts and kidney stones and for constipation.
2) Excessive intake can cause diarrhea and frequent urination.
* Pale (淡):
Sometimes, pale is added to make up the six flavors, and it moisturizes the body and helps the function of the spleen. Examples of ingredients include Chinese cabbage, Job’s tears, and winter melon.
In any case, adjusting the flavor through the five tastes not only brings out deliciousness, but also helps to identify areas of physical imbalance based on the cravings for each of the five tastes. Consuming the five tastes in a balanced and unbiased way in daily meals promotes improvement and harmony of mind and body, leading to health and happiness.
Furthermore, returning to the initial topic of sweetness, newborns show comfort with sweetness from the moment they are born and clearly reject bitterness. In other words,sweetness is a taste that is innately perceived as good before it is learned; in a sense, the acceptance of sweetness can be considered the first affirmation that life itself expresses.
Therefore, the allure and attraction to sweetness, which arises when molecular sensors on the tongue perceive sweetness as an energy source and the brain’s reward system converts it into dopamine, can be said to originate from the workings of a biological program.
In her Pillow Book (枕草子, c. 1001), Sei Shonagon (清少納言) lists amazura (甘葛, sweet vine) as one of the refined and elegant things, and recounts her precious experience of eating shaved ice served in a bowl with amazura added.
During the Nara and Heian periods (8th to 12th centuries), amazura was used as a sweetener in seasonings and confectionery, but it was an extremely valuable item, a luxury for the upper class. It was used to shave ice brought from the icehouse in the height of summer and pour over it, or to sweeten cold well water and float a few grains of roasted rice in it to beat the heat. Sweetened imo-kayu (芋粥, yam porridge) was an indispensable ultimate dessert at New Year’s banquets held in the imperial court.
In ancient times, sweet foods included fruits such as loquats, plums, pears, peaches, persimmons, jujubes, and wild grapes, while sweeteners included honey, sucrose, mizuame (水飴, starch syrup), amazura (甘葛, sweet vine), and amazake (甘酒, sweet rice drink).
* Honey:
Presented to Emperor Shomu during the Nara period from the Balhae Kingdom (present-day northern Korean Peninsula and Russia’s Primorsky Krai).
* Sugar:
During the Nara period, sugar was imported when the monk Jianzhen (鑑真和上, Ganjin) came to Japan from Tang (唐), and this is considered the first introduction of sugar to Japan. Both sugar and honey are thought to have been used as medicine only by a select few high-ranking individuals during the Nara period and were not widely used by the general public.
* Mizuame:
Made by saccharifying starch derived from grains and other crops; it was one of the luxury items of the time.
* Amazura:
Made by boiling down the sap of the Japanese ivy (ナツヅタ, Parthenocissus tricuspidata), a member of the grape family.
* Amazake:
Made from rice koji and rice or sake lees.
In any case, while sugar is the most common sweetener in modern society, before that, natural sweeteners based on locally available resources such as honey were used.
* Europe, Middle East, North Africa: honey, dried fruit.
* Native Americans of North America: maple syrup (maple tree sap).
* Central and South America: agave syrup, fruit paste.
* Mediterranean region: grape syrup (ancient Roman defrutum).
* Middle East: date syrup, date honey.
The cultivation of sugarcane is believed to date back to New Guinea around 8000 BC, and while people initially chewed the stalks to taste the sweetness, the technique of boiling down the juice to produce crystalline sugar was established in India by the Gupta dynasty (around the 4th century). This is considered the origin of sugar (sucrose), and solid sugar, which was easy to store and transport, began to be distributed as a commodity.
Sugar was among the trade goods along the Silk Road, and the method of sugar production spread to the Sasanian Persian Empire by the 6th or 7th century. It further spread to the Middle East and the Mediterranean world with the expansion of the Islamic Empire. From the 7th century onward, Arabs refined sugarcane cultivation and sugar production techniques, using sugar not only as medicine and spice, but also as a luxury item for the wealthy. Egypt boasted advanced refining technology and produced the purest white sugar in the world at that time.
The introduction of sugar to Europe is believed to date back to the knights of the First Crusade (1096-1099), who occupied Jerusalem and encountered the thriving local sugar industry and sugar trade. This unusual sweetener became known throughout Europe, and in the 12th century, the Republic of Venice took the lead in the sugar trade with the Levant (eastern Mediterranean) and was also involved in sugar production in the eastern Mediterranean.
However, in medieval Europe, sugar was a valuable commodity due to its limited production, and was mainly consumed as medicine and a luxury item by royalty, nobility, and the wealthy.
With the Age of Discovery (15th-16th centuries), sugar production shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic region, which had a more suitable climate.
* 15th century: The Portuguese introduced sugarcane cultivation to Madeira and the Canary Islands on the eastern coast of the Atlantic.
* 1493: During his second voyage, Columbus brought sugarcane seedlings from the Canary Islands to Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic) in the Caribbean.
* Early 16th century: Hispaniola becomes the first sugar-producing region in the New World.
* Mid-16th century: Portugal begins large-scale sugar plantation operations in Brazil.
Furthermore, with the expansion of sugar plantations in the New World, the African slave trade rapidly grew in the Atlantic region, including Brazil and the Caribbean, to meet the labor demand for mass production. Sugar became known as “white gold” and was an extremely profitable crop for European countries.
By the 18th century, sugar accounted for 20% of all imports to Europe and became a core commodity in the transatlantic triangular trade (the trade of European manufactured goods, African slaves, and American sugar and rum).
In 1747, German chemist Margraf discovered that sugar beets contain the same sucrose as sugarcane, and sugar beet factories began operating in the early 19th century.
During the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), when importing Caribbean sugar became difficult due to the Continental Blockade, Napoleon encouraged domestic sugar beet production, leading to the spread of sugar beet cultivation throughout Europe. By the latter half of the 19th century, sugar beet sugar accounted for the majority of the sugar supply.
In addition, the Industrial Revolution (mid-18th to 19th centuries) enabled mass production and refining of sugar, making it an affordable everyday item accessible to ordinary people. In Britain, the custom of adding sugar to tea spread even to the working class. (ref., Tracing The Path That Tea Has Taken)
The Sugar Act, enacted by the British Parliament in 1764, was a tax and trade control law for the American colonies to help cover the costs of the Seven Years’ War and the maintenance of troops stationed in North America. It is considered an early turning point that intensified the conflict that later led to American independence.
Wagashi (和菓子,Japanese confectionery), as a beautiful sweet treat that symbolizes traditional culture and a long history, is a fusion of an aesthetic sense that cherishes nature, a spirituality that seeks inner peace, and ingenious techniques. Its delicate flavors that evoke the changing seasons and nature, and its beautiful appearance, have continued to fascinate people for generations.
As mentioned above, sugar is believed to have been introduced to Japan around the 8th century during the Nara period. The “Various Medicines Register (種々薬帳),” a catalog of medicines offered to the Great Buddha preserved in the Shōsōin Treasure House (正倉院), lists sucrose (蔗糖), suggesting it was a valuable medicine.
Incidentally, various forms of sugar, each with its own unique properties, are used in wagashi (和菓子, Japanese confectionery).
* Anko (餡, sweet bean paste):
High-purity sucrose white granulated sugar is used. This is because higher-purity sugar results in a smoother taste.
* Steamed confections and mochi:
Highly hydrophilic refined white sugar is used to ensure good absorption of the dough and sugar.
* Baked goods:
White sugar is often used to achieve a golden brown color through the Maillard reaction.
* Pressed Confectionery:
For rakugan (落雁) shaped by filling wooden molds with the ingredients, white sugar and wasanbon sugar are used. White sugar tends to harden easily, while wasanbon sugar has a unique flavor and a smooth, melt-in-your-mouth texture.
* Aruheito (有平糖) and Candy:
High-purity granulated sugar or white coarse sugar are used. This is because the recrystallization property of sugar is utilized, and the melted sugar is boiled down to harden. Also, the higher the purity of the sugar, the more transparent the finished product will be.
While wagashi (和菓子, Japanese confectionery) has developed under the influence of foreign cultures since ancient times, it has built upon the confections that were introduced to Japan, utilizing meticulous, elegant, and spiritually rich creativity to form a unique and outstanding confectionery culture.
Wagashi is classified into fresh confectionery, semi-fresh confectionery, and dried confectionery, and each of these is further subdivided.
Wagashi:
1. Fresh Confectionery (生菓子):
* Mochi: Mochi (including kusa mochi and kashiwa mochi), ohagi, sekihan, etc.
* Steamed: Steamed yokan, steamed manju, uiro, etc.
* Baked:
1) Flat pan – dorayaki, sakura mochi, kintsuba, etc.
2) Oven-baked – chestnut manju, castella, momoyama, etc.
* Poured: Yokan, mizuyokan, kintamakan, etc.
* Kneaded: Nerikiri, konashi, gyuhi, seppei, etc.
* Fried sweets: Fried mooncakes, donuts, etc.
2. Semi-fresh Confectionery (半生菓子):
* Bean paste filling: Ishigoromo, etc.
* Oka filling (おか物): Monaka, etc.
* Baked:
1) Flat pan – Otoshiyaki, Chatsuu, Soshi, etc.
2)Oven-baked – Momoyama, Kimi Unpei, etc.
* Poured: Yokan, Kinugyokukan, etc.
* Kneaded: Gyuhi, etc.
3. Dry Confectionery (干菓子):
* Pressed: Rakugan, Katakuri, Unkin, etc.
* Pressed: Shiogama, Murasame, etc.
* Covered: Okoshi, Sugared sweets, etc.
* Baked: Rice crackers, Senbei, etc.
* Candy: Aruheito, etc.
* Arare, Okaki, Okoshi, Tokoroten (心太), Karinto:
During the Nara period, the techniques of Tang Dynasty confectionery were introduced, and sweets such as arare and okaki originated in Shinto rituals and were offered as offerings to the gods. As religious culture became established with the introduction of Buddhism, the custom of offering food to the gods spread, which is said to have led to the formation of a trend where new sweets were created.
* Chimaki, Warabimochi, Zenzai, Ohagi, Monaka:
From the mid-Heian period to the early Kamakura period, the influence of ancient Chinese culture continued. Customs such as the offering of mochi at the Inoko celebration (亥子祝) to pray for good health and protection from illness, and the custom of eating chimaki offered at the Tango no Sekku (端午の節句, Boy’s Festival), were introduced, and this is considered the period when the prototypes of Japanese sweets were formed.
* Castella, Konpeito, Biscuits:
From the end of the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period, trade with China gradually increased, and sugar buns and sugar jelly came to be used as sweets in the tea ceremony. However, the decisive factor in the spread of sugar was the arrival of the Portuguese on Tanegashima Island in 1543 and the subsequent Nanban trade, which brought in sugar confections that still exist today, such as castella, konpeito, and biscuits.
* Momoyama, Nerikiri, Kintsuba:
In the early Edo period, when society began to stabilize after the end of the Sengoku period and the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, the supply of sugar increased significantly due to economic improvements and increased commodity distribution. This led to the emergence of a variety of Japanese sweets, including traditional sweets such as nerikiri and kintsuba, which grew and flourished supported by the tea ceremony culture.
During the Edo period, the shogunate initially continued trade with the West, but after the Shimabara Rebellion in 1637, it shifted to a policy of national isolation. Sugar was imported through Dejima in Nagasaki, a trading post, and thus came to be known as Dejima sugar.
(See my previous blog post on national isolation: Destructive Globalism Shatters Tranquil Isolation)
By the mid-Edo period (17th century), the depletion of silver and copper, which had been exchanged for sugar imports, became significant, and the shogunate began considering domestic sugar production.
The Shimazu domain (島津藩), which ruled Oshima County in Satsuma Province (present-day Amami Oshima), was the first to begin brown sugar production and also worked on mass-producing sugarcane. Following this, the Ryukyu Kingdom began brown sugar production, and in the 18th century, various domains in western Japan also started sugar production. In late Edo period Osaka, many sugar wholesalers emerged, and sugar spread to the common people through the sale of dagashi sweets (駄菓子) and other products.
Nanban confectionery (南蛮菓子) gradually became popular as a sweet treat served with tea ceremonies. However, during the Genroku era (元禄時代, around 1700), with the discovery of new ingredients such as Domyoji flour (道明寺粉), shiratamako flour (白玉粉), and agar (寒天), wagashi (和菓子, Japanese confectionery) underwent remarkable development, giving rise to treats like rakugan (落雁, rice flour), neriyokan (練羊羹, agar), sakuramochi (桜餅, Domyoji flour), and kuzugashi (葛菓子, kudzu).
Furthermore, it was around this time that Kyogashi (京菓子, Kyoto confectionery), incorporating motifs of seasonal nature and scenery, as well as the refined artistic sensibilities of the Rinpa school (琳派), began to gain popularity. These confections were protected and highly valued by the imperial court, daimyo, and wealthy merchants, and were even presented to the shogun as official confections.
* Imagawayaki, Sakuramochi:
By the mid-Edo period, Japanese sweets had become established among the common people, and rankings of famous Imagawayaki shops appeared, becoming a topic of conversation. Sakuramochi saw a division into East and West styles, such as the Chomeiji style of the Kanto region and the Domyoji style of the Kansai region, as well as the creation of Shiogama, which was made by pressing the ingredients into wooden molds, based on molding techniques such as baking molds.
* Kurikinton, Kuzumochi, Kashiwamochi, Mizuyokan, Kanoko, Amanatto:
In the latter half of the Edo period, Kurikinton, which originated in Nakatsugawa, spread with the development of transportation infrastructure, and various traditional sweets that are still known today as local specialties were created.
In any case, the origins of Japanese confectionery can be traced back to the Jomon period, when nuts and fruits were preserved. During the Yayoi period, techniques for processing rice and grains emerged, leading to technological innovations such as the removal of bitterness and the creation of mochi (rice cakes). Sweeteners such as rice syrup and amazura (甘葛, a type of sweet vine) came into use, and techniques for making Chinese confectionery by kneading and frying rice, wheat, soybeans, and red beans were incorporated. Japanese confectionery evolved and became established as a refined form of sweet used in rituals, at the imperial court, and in tea ceremonies.
The significant development of Japanese confectionery during the Edo period stemmed from the end of warfare and the arrival of an era of peace. With the stable supply of food, a trend emerged seeking culinary and cultural richness, leading to the development of unique Japanese confectionery in various regions. In particular, Kyoto’s kyogashi (京菓子, Kyoto-style confectionery) and Edo’s jogashi (上菓子, Premium confectionery) influenced each other, resulting in the creation of diverse Japanese confectionery with ingenious names and designs.
While there were candy shops for the common people of Edo, the culture of dagashi (駄菓子, cheap sweets) spread through the candy sold by Kamakura-bushi candy vendors (鎌倉節飴売り) and at stalls during temple and shrine festivals. Eventually, in addition to dried sweets such as arare and senbei, a variety of Japanese sweets such as manju and yokan were delivered to the public through itinerant vendors.
Anko (餡子, sweet bean paste) is an essential sweet ingredient in Japanese confectionery, used as a filling for mochi, dorayaki, and manju, to wrap rolled glutinous rice like in ohagi, to be shaped into sweets on its own, or to be used in soups like oshiruko.
Anko is a crucial element in determining the flavor and color of Japanese sweets. Besides common adzuki beans, it’s made using a variety of seasonal ingredients such as white kidney beans, green peas, edamame, sweet potatoes, and chestnuts. The unique sweetness, aroma, and appearance derived from these ingredients create a rich variety of flavors.
Azuki bean paste (sweet red bean paste) comes in two main types: tsubuan (coarse bean paste) which retains the texture of the beans, and koshian (smooth bean paste) which has the skins removed. Both are characterized by their deep color and rich sweetness.
➤ Tsubuan (chunky red bean paste):
Made by preserving the texture of red beans by not crushing them as much as possible during the cooking process, allowing you to enjoy the original flavor of red beans.
➤ Koshian (smooth red bean paste):
Made by straining red beans that have been crushed during cooking to remove the skins, resulting in a smooth texture.
➤ Tsubushian (crushed red bean paste):
Made by thoroughly crushing the beans while leaving the skins intact, allowing you to enjoy both a smooth texture and the texture of the skins.
➤ Oguraan (小倉あん):
Made by adding Dainagon red beans simmered in syrup to the smooth flavor of koshian or tsubushian, adding depth to the taste.
➤ Uguisu-an (うぐいすあん):
Made from uguisu beans (also known as green peas), it is characterized by its pale green color, reminiscent of the refreshing early spring bird, the nightingale or Japanese white-eye.
➤ Zunda-an (ずんだあん):
Characterized by its green color, made from edamame beans.
➤ Shiroan (白あん):
Made from white kidney beans, it is characterized by its light and elegant sweetness and plays a role in enhancing the flavors of other ingredients.
Adzuki beans (小豆) have been consumed since the Jomon period, and cultivation began in the Yayoi period.
In ancient Japan, the color red was believed to have the power to ward off evil spirits, and adzuki beans were considered a food to pray for good health and protection from illness. The practice of ordinary people eating the red grain rice offered as a sacrifice dates back to the age of mythology.
During the Manyo period, steamed glutinous rice (強飯, kowa-ii) was eaten, but later, adzuki beans were added and cooked together to make sekihan (赤飯, red bean rice). This dish has been passed down to the present day as an indispensable part of auspicious occasions such as festivals and birthday celebrations.
An (餡) originally referred to a filling used in food, originating in China. It is believed to have been introduced to Japan during the Asuka period (592-710 AD) by Japanese envoys to the Sui Dynasty. Initially, it was a salted an (塩餡, shio an), a heavy, paste-like filling made by boiling down starchy and fiber-rich ingredients. With the arrival of Buddhism, which prohibits meat consumption, red beans became a substitute ingredient in Shojin cuisine (精進料理, vegetarian cuisine). (ref., Shojin Cuisine For Spiritual Awakening And Well-Being)
An (餡) made with amazura (甘葛, sweet vine) dates back to the Heian period, but An (餡) came to be recognized as a sweet food from the Muromachi period when sugar was introduced to Japan. In the mid-Edo period, when sugar became widespread among the common people as a sweetener, An (餡) came to mean sweet bean paste (餡子, anko).
Azuki beans (小豆), the main ingredient in anko (sweet red bean paste), are known as a nutrient-rich health food, containing dietary fiber and carbohydrates. When consumed in a balanced way, these nutrients work together in the body, providing efficient energy and boosting overall health.
* Azuki beans contain more dietary fiber than other legumes, with a good balance of soluble and insoluble fiber. This promotes healthy gut health, activating beneficial bacteria and contributing to a healthy gut environment and improved immunity.
* As a carbohydrate primarily composed of sugars, azuki beans provide efficient energy. They also help eliminate excess sodium from the body, reducing swelling through diuresis, regulating fluid balance, and promoting metabolism, leading to a refreshed and healthy state.
* Azuki beans are also rich in minerals such as potassium, which helps prevent high blood pressure, iron, which is important for preventing anemia, and zinc, which promotes cell metabolism.
* It is rich in plant-based proteins that maintain the health of muscles, hair, and skin, as well as B vitamins (especially vitamin B1, which is involved in carbohydrate metabolism) that support energy metabolism.
* It contains polyphenols (anthocyanins and saponins) with excellent antioxidant properties, which are said to remove reactive oxygen species from the body, slow down cell aging, and be useful for anti-aging and preventing lifestyle-related diseases.
In any case, red bean paste is significantly lower in fat than Western sweets such as cakes and chocolates that use a lot of butter and cream, making it suitable as a snack during dieting or for energy replenishment before strength training. It can also be easily made at home, and the amount of sugar can be adjusted accordingly.
The ingredients for the red bean paste are dried adzuki beans, water, sanonto (三温糖) or refined white sugar (上白糖), and salt.
1. Parboil the adzuki beans over medium heat for about 5 minutes, then rinse under running water.
2. Bring the parboiled adzuki beans back to a boil over high heat, then reduce to medium heat and cook for about 40 minutes.
3. Discard the cooking liquid, add the sanonto, and cook over medium heat, stirring gently to avoid crushing the beans.
4. Once the moisture has evaporated, add the salt, mix, and remove from the heat.
5. Let it cool slightly, then it’s ready.
* Sanonto is a type of sugar unique to Japan, made by repeatedly boiling down a centrifugal sugar solution to extract crystals. It is a type of refined sugar without impurities, similar to granulated sugar or refined white sugar.
Note: Although it has a caramel color (yellowish-brown), it is not brown sugar.
In the past, for ordinary people struggling with daily life, moderately sweet dishes and sweets provided small joys, luxurious and meaningful moments, and a boost of energy.
However, in recent years, high-fructose corn syrup, which is said to have a negative impact on physical and mental health as a cause of obesity and disease, and artificial sweeteners that are advertised as zero-calorie, have come to be included in carbonated drinks, soft drinks, frozen foods, and processed foods, and sweetness itself has come to be treated as the villain.
Furthermore, the rulers exploit this instinctive human taste preference, exploring the optimal combination of carbohydrates, fats, and salts to create irresistibly appealing flavors that are added to products, thereby plundering wealth from the common people and harming their health.
In fact, artificial sweeteners such as aspartame, acesulfame potassium, sucralose, and saccharin, which are hundreds of times sweeter than the sugar added to food, stimulate the secretion of dopamine in the brain, creating feelings of happiness and a desire for more. They work through a mechanism similar to drug addiction, motivating consumers to repurchase food products. At the same time, they increase the risk of cancer and diabetes, affect the nervous system and metabolism, strain the kidneys, and impact gut microbiota and blood pressure, all of which contribute to increased revenue for food companies, medical institutions, and the pharmaceutical industry managed by The Rulers.
When the ingredients or additives of food products are listed as isomerized sugar or high-fructose corn syrup, it is another name for high-fructose corn syrup. This is a type of sugar made by breaking down corn starch (corn starch) with enzymes or acids into a liquid, and it is a mixture of glucose and fructose. If the proportion of fructose is less than 50%, it is called glucose-fructose solution, and if the proportion of fructose is between 50% and 90%, it is called high-fructose corn syrup. Drinking 500ml of commercially available soft drink containing about 12% high-fructose corn syrup would result in ingesting 60g of high-fructose corn syrup.
While high-fructose corn syrup was developed in Japan, the United States was the first to apply and commercialize it in food. Following the Cuban Revolution (1959), the United States found it difficult to rely on Cuban sugar, and in the 1970s, it introduced high-fructose corn syrup as a sugar substitute. This syrup became widely used in common American foods such as soft drinks, fruit juices, sports drinks, cereals, jams, bread, yogurt, and ketchup, bringing about a historical change in food culture itself. The U.S. government also provided massive subsidies to farmers, and, combined with genetically modified technology, helped to produce corn even cheaper and in larger quantities.
The reason why high-fructose corn syrup may contribute to obesity and diabetes appears to be related to the fact that glucose and fructose have completely different metabolic pathways.
Glucose, abundant in rice, bread, noodles, and potatoes, is absorbed from the small intestine into the bloodstream and transported to cells throughout the body. It becomes the brain’s sole energy source and also activates cells throughout the body, increasing insulin and blood sugar levels, and increasing the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), which suppresses appetite. It also suppresses the secretion of ghrelin, a hormone that stimulates appetite, and any excess is stored as triglycerides.
On the other hand, fructose is mostly metabolized in the liver and does not directly raise blood sugar. However, it is converted into triglycerides in the liver, and excess is stored as fat, potentially leading to dyslipidemia. Since GLP-1 secretion does not increase and ghrelin production is not suppressed, consuming fructose does not provide a feeling of fullness, which can lead to overeating. Furthermore, because it contains a large amount of carbohydrates, it can contribute to addiction.
The fact that consumption of high-fructose corn syrup and artificial sweeteners has surged since the 1970s may not be unrelated to population control strategies based on the concept that population growth and material economic growth will soon exceed the Earth’s capacity, as stated in the Club of Rome’s 1972 report, “The Limits to Growth.” (ref., Earthrise And Essential Elements Of The Earth)
The mind and body once craved sweets as a sign that the body, feeling low on energy or fatigued, was naturally seeking the energy it needed; as a reaction to normalize unstable blood sugar levels; and as a sign that the brain needed energy, not simply to satisfy hunger. Furthermore, the mind and body once needed sweetness as a physical need to alleviate stress and emotional instability, as a brain function seeking comfort and satisfaction when feeling tired, depressed, or lonely, as a need for rest and nutritional balance, as a voice from the body, a signal from the brain, and a desire for peace and tranquility.
In the past, humans were born with a keen understanding of these signs, harmonizing mind and body through their relationship with sweets, building a peaceful and enriching relationship of coexistence and symbiosis with the Earth and nature, rather than simply indulging in impulses.
The craving for sweets is not simply a result of weak willpower or overeating. It is an instinctive response involving multiple factors, including bodily mechanisms, brain function, and mental state.
It can be said that properly enjoying the benefits of sweetness in the traditions and culture that humankind has cultivated throughout its long history, and wisely engaging with sweetness while being mindful of its quantity and quality, is essential for enriching one’s life and leading to happiness.
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